Character of Curley’s wife in Of Mice and Men Essay Example for Free

Character of Curley’s wife in Of Mice and Men Essay The novel Of Mice and Men was written in the 1930’s by a man named John Steinbeck. The book is set in America and at a time during the Great Depression. This was when the stock market had crashed some years prior, lots of companies went bankrupt, the banking systems failed and a massive soar in unemployment was witnessed. Also during this period of the Great Depression droughts were seen in the southern and western states of America with failed harvests in Kansas, Oklahoma, Arkansas and Texas. The fertile grassland that once was, became desert like and the area became known as the â€Å"dust bowl†. During this time the women fitted into this society as the home keepers, the men would go out to earn money whilst the woman stayed home to ensure things ran along smoothly there. The key terms that I will be evaluating in this essay, is how Steinbeck portrays Curley’s wife and how he attempts to make the reader either feel dislike or sympathy towards her. In chapter two Steinbeck describes Curley’s wife as a â€Å"tart†, this is a derogatory term used to describe a female who could possibly be â€Å"loose† or â€Å"promiscuous† even if they are not. Even before the reader is introduced to Curley’s wife, Steinbeck begins to tempt the reader to dislike her. Further on in the chapter when she is being introduced for the first time, Steinbeck uses imagery to describe Curley’s wife, he writes about her â€Å"full rouged lips†, her â€Å"red finger nails†, the â€Å"bouquets of red ostrich feathers† and the â€Å"red mules† she is wearing. Here the reader can see that Steinbeck is using connotations of the colour red. Red is seen as a provocative or seductive colour, it can also be seen as a colour of warning or danger. Here Steinbeck could possibly be trying to foreshadow future events to come. From this the reader may begin to already form a dislike towards Curley’s wife as it appears that she attempting to attract the attention of the workers on the farm, this would be an un-natural way for a married woman to behave. In chapter three Steinbeck continues to describe Curley’s wi fe in a negative manner. Steinbeck uses the term â€Å"jail bait† when she is being spoken about by the farm workers. The term jail bait is a metaphor as you cannot literally be a piece of bait that will end another up in jail. A woman who is described as jail bait is somebody who attempts to look older than they  actually are, and are possibly attempting to attract a suitor to take the bait, if this event comes to fruition the suitor could find himself serving a lengthy prison sentence. Further on in chapter three, Steinbeck writes about Curley’s wife as having â€Å"the eye† all the time, Steinbeck again is using a metaphor to descried Curley’s wife actions towards the farm workers. You cannot actually have the eye, what Steinbeck is doing is attempting to show the reader that she is always looking for attention and has to act in a provocative manner to obtain this. The reader may begin to feel strong dislike towards Curley’s wife now, as this is not the way any married woman should act. However it also begins to show the reader what a lonely existence it was for women during this era and possibly all that Curley’s wife actually craved was social interaction which is a basic need for any human being. Steinbeck again could possibly be foreshadowing future events to come. In chapter four Steinbeck begins to touch more on the lonely existence for a woman during this period of time. Curley’s wife speaks about wanting to â€Å"talk to somebody ever once in a while† this again represents the loneliness that she may be experiencing and again possibly the cause for her acting in the manner that she does around the workers. Steinbeck here uses imagery as the reader can imagine Curley’s wife being completely alone from female contact and only having Curley to speak to and the farm workers when Curley is not around. Steinbeck could also be possibly foreshadowing future events to come. Further on in the chapter Steinbeck also creates an element of fear towards Curley’s wife, this is seen when she is talking with Lennie and Candy. Curley’s wife states to Candy that she could get him â€Å"strung up† on a tree when she is challenged by him. Steinbeck a gain is using imagery and a metaphor to describe what will have. Being strung up is a referral to being hung, this would be done by making a noose at one end of a rope and hanging it over a branch and tying it to a tree, unfortunately a person then has the noose put over his head and then the rope is pulled tight and the person is effectively â€Å"strung up†. From this the reader may begin to feel a strong dislike to Curley’s wife even though she could possibly be lonely, the way she is going about getting the attention she craves is not the way to win people over. Making threats to a person who already may not get the best treatment, will only make them fear the consequences more if they are found out. In chapter five Steinbeck uses imagery to describe the way  Curley’s wife quietly approached Lennie in the stable, the reader could feel that this is a sneakily way to get close to Lennie and then before he can get away from her she is upon him. Steinbeck also describes Curley’s wife as having little â€Å"sausage curls†, Steinbeck is using personification to describe her hair, as in reality you would not have sausage as curls in someone’s hair, and again may be attempting to sway the reader to dislike her, also from this the reader may feel that Curley’s wife can be quite sly and cunning at times, the way that she approaches Lennie in the barn is not the norm if you are just strolling about, it must be a calculated act, knowing full well that she will catch Lennie alone. From this the reader may feel a strong dislike towards her, this is due to the fact that although she is married, she is still attempting to get one of the farm workers alone. It is almost like she cannot resist the temptation. And ultimately in the end if anything was to happen, the worker would move on and she would have knew victims to try and entice. Throughout the novella the readers opinions of Curley’s wife may slightly sway from dislike to sympathy, this is because the way Steinbeck uses imagery to describe her at the beginning it is that of a loose and easy woman, craving the attention of men on the farm in an almost sexual and provocative manner even though she is recently married. This theme continues throughout the majority of the story at different intervals. She enjoys to wear red, she is always asking if anyone have seen her husband, she seems to relax more if they have not and enjoys the attention she attracts. The reader may also feel sympathy for her as when Steinbeck describes her wanting company, this could possibly be a reason for her always hanging around the worker and looking for Curley. Ultimately I feel the reader will show great dislike towards her, the way she acts is not the correct way for a woman to act regardless of loneliness. I feel that Steinbeck is attempting to draw attention to how lonely life must have been for any person during that period of time. The struggles that they must have come over and lengths that some people would have gone to achieve that.

The Types Of Anxiety Disorders

The Types Of Anxiety Disorders Anxiety is a general term for several disorders that cause nervousness, apprehension and worrying. These disorders affect how we feel and behave, and they can manifest physical symptoms. Mild anxiety is vague and unsettling, while severe anxiety can be extremely debilitating, which will cause a serious impact on daily life. (medicalnewstoday.com, 2010) It is different as fear, as we only feel fear when the stimulus is present, and it fades off if we avoid the stimulus. (James W. Kalat, 1992). On the other hand, anxiety is the result of how people perceive threats, which appears to be uncontrollable and unavoidable. In fact, anxiety may not always be a bad thing as they help us stay alert and focused; it spurs us to action and motivates us to solve problems. People often experience worry or fear when they confront something challenging such as examinations and interview, these mild anxiety are justified and considered as normal. It only becomes a disorder when it interferes with our ability to function and cope with everyday life (James W. Kalat, 1992). Anxiety disorder, are thus the results from excessive anxiety and worries, in which occurred in a prolonged period of time to be classified as a type of disorder. Research shows that almost 25 percent of the adult population experienced symptoms characteristic of the various anxiety disorders (Kessler etal., 1994). Because anxiety disorders are a group of related conditions rather than just a single disorder, they vary from person to person. Different individuals may experience different type of attacks and symptoms. Despite of the different forms in anxiety disorder, all anxiety disorders share one major symptom: persistent or severe worry or fear in situations in which most people would not feel threatened (Melinda Smith, 2008). This shows that to be categorized in the different types of anxiety disorder, it depends on which type of anxiety is experienced, the degree of anxiety experienced, and also the situation which stimulated the anxiety. There are several disorders which are categorized under anxiety disorder, the five major categorize are namely Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD), Panic disorder, phobias, Post-traumatic Stress Disorder and the Obsessive-Compulsive Disorders (Zimbardo Gerrig, 1996) Types of Anxiety Disorders Generalized Anxiety Disorder This disorder is diagnosed when a person have the anxious and worry feeling in a prolonged period of time, at least six months, when he or she is not threatened by any specific danger. It usually focused on specific life circumstances (Zimbardo Gerrig, 1996). Several examples for life circumstances are such as keeping their job, simple household matters, well-being of loved ones etc. They do not have realistic reason to have such intense anxiety and it may persist and interfere their normal functioning in daily life for a prolonged period of time. Physical symptoms of Generalized Anxiety Disorder may include sweating, flushing, pounding heart, diarrhea, clammy hands, headaches, muscle tension and muscle aches. Whereas the psychological symptoms are frequently includes persistent nervousness, fatigue, restlessness, irritability and insomnia (Rod Plotnik, 1993). This disorder leads to impaired functioning because the person is unable to control his excessive anxiety; hence the individual cannot attend sufficiently to his or her daily life obligations. It is further compounded by the physical symptoms associated with the disorder. For instance, when the individual has this disorder, he perhaps will have persistent insomnia, which leads to deprivation of sleep. This will then affect his function ability the next day as he is too tired or fatigue. Generalized Anxiety Disorder is commonly treated with psychotherapy or with medications. Many studies show that therapy is the most effective treatment for most people as it is side-effect free. One of the psychotherapy which is commonly used to treat Generalized Anxiety Disorder is the Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy (CBT). It analyses the distortions in the way the patient perceive the world and themselves (Robert Segal, 2008). As from the medication aspect, drugs which are frequently prescribed are tranquilizers, such as Valium and Librium (Slazman, 1991). In moderate dozes, it is usually not physically addicting. However, when it is consumed in higher doses, the person may suffer withdrawal symptoms when the drugs were stopped. Based on studies, people who had been treated by these two ways were 68% recovered or less impaired than untreated controls (Noyes et al., 1980) Hence both drugs and psychotherapy are often used together to treat patients with Generalized Anxiety Disorder. Panic Disorder Research shows that panic disorder is an emotional disturbance which is found in about 1-2% of all American Adults, women more than men and is rare among children (McNally, 1990; Myers et al., 1984; Robins et al., 1984). According to the DSM-III-R, panic disorders are different from generalized anxiety disorder and the various types of phobias. Patients of panic disorders usually experience unexpected and severe panic attacks that may last for only a few minutes to a few hours. Studies shows that people with this disorder have a fairly constant state of moderate anxiety and an over responsive sympathetic nervous system. When faced a mild stressor, patients may respond with a sudden increase in heart rate and blood adrenaline (Liebowitz et al., 1985; Nutt, 1989). As it attacks suddenly, it can occur anytime, even when the individual are asleep. Although research could not find the specific cause of panic disorder, it is said to be due to an inherited neurochemical abnormality that results the sudden surges of physiological arousal and fear or it may be due to psychological factors such as conditioning and irrational beliefs (McNally 1990). It is also believed that panic disorder is trigger by stress, fear, or even physical activities. When people discover that by doing this physical activity will cause a panic attack, they tend to avoid the activity completely, causing them to be more sensitive towards the effect of that particular physical activity. Hence, for example, they tend to suffer from panic attacks due to the slightest exertion that will cause their heart rate to increase, in which they will start to perceive as a panic attack because of their persistent worry of having this attack again. Therefore, professionals usually suggest the patient to have regular exercise as a treatment for panic disorder (Ledwidge, 1980) Base on prior studies, panic disorders are usually treated with a combination of benzodiazepines or antidepressants and psychotherapy. With this combination, it can be usually treated successfully in a period of 3 to 8 months (Ballenger 1991). Phobias According to Zimbardo Gerrig in their book Psychology and Life, they stated that a person suffers from phobia when he suffers from a persistent and irrational fear of a specific object, activity or situation that is excessive and unreasonable given the reality of the threat. This means that that person may show intense fear of something, in which normal people may not have such intense fear of it. This shows that phobias have a distinct different from the meaning of fear. Fear, on the other hand, is a rational reaction to an objectively identified external danger that will cause the person to escape or attack in self-defense. What it means by objectively identified external danger are such as sudden natural disaster or there is fire at one ¿Ã‚ ½Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½s home. These stimuli are perceived as dangerous and it is rational to have fear against it. Phobias causes significant distress and it interferes with the adjustment in life of that that individual (Zimbardo Gerrig, 1996). James W. Kalat even define phobia as a fear so extreme that it interferes with normal living. For example, normal people may have fear against some insect such as bees or even spiders. But these fears did not interfere with their function of living and it did not stop them from achieving their goal. It is only diagnosed as phobia if this fear interferes with the normal functionality of their life. The DSM-IV divides phobia into two categories, namely social phobias and specific phobias. Rod Plotnik define social phobia as phobias which are brought on by the presence of other people. This further means that that person feels uneasy in a public location because they are fear of the presence of others around them. People suffering from social phobia may have stage fright and always fear that they will act something embarrassing in public. Surveys show that approximately 13.3 percent of U.S. adults have experienced social phobia (Kessler et al., 1994). On the other hand, specific phobias occur when a patient produces response towards several different types of objects or situations (Zimbardo Gerrig, 1996). Some people may have intense fear of height, while some towards snake which may due to prior conditioning. Different people with specific phobias may have different thing or stimulus which they are afraid of. Phobias can last a lifetime as people tend to avoid the stimulus which they are afraid of. Hence it is very difficult for a phobia to extinguish itself. Hence the therapies which are usually used to cure phobias are systematic desensitization and flooding. Systematic desensitization is known as the most common and successful therapy to treat phobias. It is a method of reducing fear by gradually exposing the patient to the object which they fear (Wolpe, 1961). For instance, if a person is afraid of snakes, they are asked to slowly approach a snake through stages. For the first stage they may just need to imagine about an image of a snake, as the person is ready, they are then exposed to the real stimulus. However, the patient can stop the process whenever they feel distress about it. This shows that the process resembles Skinners shaping procedure. Flooding, also known as implosion is a treatment in which differ from systematic desensitization. Base on Hogan and Kirchner, this treatment is conducted by exposing the object of the phobia suddenly, rather than gradually. This approach is basically treating phobia by believing that the human sympathetic nervous system is unable to maintain an extreme arousal for a very long period of time, in which the body will start to adapt and the fear will start to subside. Obsessive-Compulsive Disorders According to Jeanne Segal, Obsessive-compulsive disorder is characterized by uncontrollable, unwanted thoughts and repetitive, ritualized behaviors in which the individual feel compelled to perform. As the name implies, this disorder consists of obsessions and compulsions. Obsessions are involuntary, uncontrollable thoughts, images or impulses that tend to occur over and over again in the mind unconsciously. For example, the person may repetitively think that they may not lock the door yet, although they already did. These thinking are usually disturbing and may cause stress to the person. On the other hand, compulsions are repetitive behaviors or rituals in which the person is driven to carry out again and again (Melinda Smith, 2008). This means that the action is taken again and again to reduce the discomfort of the previously repeating obsessions. For instance, the patient may repetitively checking whether he had turn off the oven even though he had checked it again and again for the past few hours. This may then interfere with the normal routine of the individual ¿Ã‚ ½Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½s daily life especially their social and occupational functioning. According to Rapoport, obsessive-compulsive disorder can be treated by exposing the person to the very situation or object in which the individual is attempting to avoid. He further suggests that if this treatment does not work, clomipramine can be used as medication. This antidepressant drug is usually used simultaneously with exposure therapy for an efficient result. Furthermore, researchers also found out that about 80% of the patients had maintained their improved status of reducing their rituals from 5 hours to 1 hour a day (OSullivan et al., 1991). Post-traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) PTSD is a disorder in which it develops following a traumatic event that threatens ones safety or create a helpless feeling towards that individual (Robert Segal,2008). Traumatic events are such as car crash, kidnapping, natural disasters, rape case, war etc. These events somehow create fear towards the individual in which it develops into PTSD. Studies shows that rape victim are among the group are most likely to develop this disorder (Green, 1994). After the individual experience a traumatic event, the body will be in a state of shock. If the individual make sense of what had happened, they tend to come out of it. But if the individual remain in psychological shock, PTSD will then develop. Zimbardo Gerrig defines this disorder as an anxiety disorder that is characterized by persistent re-experience of traumatic events through dreams, hallucinations or flashbacks. The symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder usually arises suddenly, gradually or continuously over time (Melinda Smith, 2008). Sometimes it may also be triggered by a stimulus that is related to the traumatic event. For example, victims who are raped in a car tend to have PTSD when they see a car. PTSD can be treated by encouraging the victim to face the trauma they have experienced rather than to avoid them. There are four types of treatments for PTSD, namely Trauma-focused cognitive-behavioral therapy, Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing, Family therapy and medications (Robert Segal, 2008). The Trauma-focused cognitive-behavioral therapy involves exposing the victim towards thoughts, feelings and situations that will remind the victim about the trauma. This therapy also encourages the victim to identify upsetting thoughts of the event and replacing them with a more balanced picture. The Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing incorporates the elements of cognitive-behavioral therapy with eye movements or other forms of rhythmic stimulations. For instance, hand taps or sounds. This therapy is believed to unfreeze the brains information processing system which is interrupted in times of extreme stress. It is also used to free the frozen emotional fragments whic h retained their original intensity; they can be integrated into a cohesive memory. Family therapy is a therapy in which family members around the victim help the loved ones to understand and support what they are going through. Last but not least, medication can be prescribed to relive secondary symptoms such as depression or anxiety, but it will not cure the causes of PTSD. General Symptoms of Anxiety Disorder According to Jeanne Segal, anxiety disorders share one major symptom, which is persistent or severe fear or worry in situations in which normal people would not feel threatened. In addition to the primary symptoms of irrational and excessive worry and fear, emotional symptoms of anxiety disorder includes: having trouble concentrating, tension, irritability, restlessness, anticipating the worst, apprehension feelings and have the tendency to focus more on signs of danger. On the other hand, physical symptoms are involved because anxiety makes the body to produce a fight-or-flight response. Common physical symptoms include pounding heart, sweating, muscle tensions, fatigue, insomnia, shortness of breath, stomach upset, and etc. Anxiety sufferers often mistook these physical symptoms as symptoms of medical illness, causing them to visit the hospital numerous times before discovering their disorder. Causes of Anxiety Disorder Many psychologists suggest that the development of anxiety disorder with the four etiological approaches, namely biological, psychodynamic, behavioral and cognitive (Zimbardo Gerrig, 1996). Biological Seligman proposed a hypothesis called as the preparedness hypothesis. This hypothesis suggests that human carry around an evolutionary tendency to respond quickly and thoughtlessly to once-feared stimuli. This hypothesis attempts to explain why only certain phobias are more common than fears of other dangers. For example, the fear of snakes and height are more common than the fear of electricity. He further proposed that at one time in the evolutionary past, certain fear enhanced our ancestors chances of survival. Besides that, he also thinks that there is a possibility where human are born with a predisposition to fear whatever is related to sources of serious danger in the evolutionary past. However, this hypothesis did not explain the other types of phobias which develop in response to objects or situations that would not have had survival meaning over evolutionary theory, such as the fear of driving or elevators. A research conducted with identical and fraternal twins shows another evidence of a biological role in anxiety disorders. This research suggests a genetic basis for the predisposition to experience four of the five categories of anxiety disorders (Skre et al., 1993). It suggest that the probability of a pair of identical twins both suffered from a panic disorder is twice the probability of both fraternal twins were sufferers. However, phobia shows no genetic evidence because it is develop more purely environmental origins for those disorders. Psychodynamic According to Zimbardo Gerrig, this model is based on the assumption that the symptoms of anxiety disorders actually comes from an underlying psychic conflicts or fears. These symptoms are actually attempts to protect the individual from psychological pain. For example, in obsessive-compulsive disorders, the obsessive behavior seems to be an attempt to displace anxiety created by a related but far more feared conflict or desire. Hence, in order to gain some relief, the individual then substitute an obsession towards something that symbolically captures the forbidden impulse. Another example is such as a child with a record of childhood abuse develops the obsessive-compulsive disorder. The child may have different types of compulsion so that she will feel being in control and not bullied by someone else and this soothes anxiety of losing control or doing something wrong that will cause her family to beat her up. In a nutshell, the individual actually carry out minor task repetitively to avoid the original issue that is creating unconscious conflict. Behavioral This factor focus on the way symptoms of anxiety disorders are conditioned or reinforced. The Classical conditioning theory proposed by Ivan Pavlov is often used to explain the development of phobias, which are seen as classically conditioned fears. This means that the object in which the individual phobia of may be a neutral stimulus but became something a phobia stimulus after it is paired with a frightening experience. For example, an individual might not be afraid of a dog before the incident in which he is bitten by a dog. From that incident, the individual is conditioned that all dogs will bite and thus cause him to have a fear of dogs. As what the obsessive-compulsive example above suggests, the compulsive behaviors tend to reduce the unconscious anxiety associated with the obsessive thoughts. This can be explained from the behavioral aspect. As the individual reduce the unconscious anxiety through his compulsive behaviors, it reinforces the compulsive behaviors as it causes a sense of temporary relieve. Cognitive Sufferers of anxiety disorder tend to perceive their distress as a sign of impending disaster. Their reaction may set off a vicious cycle in which the person fears disaster, which in turn leads to an increase of the anxiety level even more, which cause the anxiety sensation to worsen and confirms the person ¿Ã‚ ½Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½s fear (Beck Emery, 1985). Research also found out that anxious patients maintain their anxiety by employing cognitive biases that highlight the threatening of the stimuli (MacLeod et al., 1986). The result of this study suggest that anxious patients may have bias in attending or encoding that makes them more likely to notice a threatening stimuli. Neuromolecular Studies show that levels of some neurotransmitter in the body contributes to anxiety disorder. For instance, low levels of GABA, which reduces the activity in the central nervous system, will contribute to anxiety (Lydiard RB, Nemeroff CB, 2003). Recent studies also suggest that the effect of Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors (SSRIs) in alleviating anxiety may result from a direct action on GABA neurons (Taylor M, 2004). Effect of Anxiety Disorder According to Kendall Genre, an anxiety disorder can affect one ¿Ã‚ ½Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½s family and friends in a number of ways. When one has anxiety disorder, the symptoms which they experience, such as insomnia, irritability, tension can affect his or her interpersonal relationships with his or her family and friends. Besides that, the symptoms of anxiety disorder may abrupt the normal function of that individual in his daily life (Kendall Genre, 2008). The individual may not be able to do his or her work efficiently which may be related to the symptoms one suffered due to anxiety disorder. For example, if the individual suffers from insomnia, he will be fatigue the next day and causing lack of concentration in fulfilling his task properly. Symptoms may last for days, causing the sufferer having difficulty to cope it, which then cause them to unable to function properly (Judith Boucher, 2007) Furthermore, some anxiety disorder such as panic disorder and Post-traumatic stress disorder may cause the individual to avoid things that will trigger the disorder (Kendall Genre, 2008). Avoidance then causes the individual to unable to function ones daily life normally. For instance, if a person is afraid of car due to an incident which she was rape in a car, she will avoid going on cars and thus circumscribed her ability to interact socially in such a way that her family, friends and coworkers are affected. She can no longer drive out to have tea with her friends because she wants to avoid being in a car. Better Daoust suggest that anxiety disorder especially panic disorder can cause the body to take a lot of punishment due to its broad symptoms. Panic attack can generate long term stress related problems that are quite serious. First of all, the heart will suffer first from a panic attack. If it is not handled properly, it will affect the functions of other organs in the body too. During a panic attack, the lungs will work harder and the heart pumps faster because there is a lack of cellular support, the brain dedicates energy to somewhere else. Hence, she suggests that panic attack is a multi-system attacker. Anxiety disorders are often comorbid with other serious psychiatric disorders, particularly common, depression and substance abuse (Kendall Genre, 2008). This means that a patient of anxiety disorder has a very high possibility to suffer from depression or substance abuse.

Importance Of Cost Control In Construction Projects

Importance Of Cost Control In Construction Projects The purpose of this report is to explain the importance of cost control in construction projects and its function. The Cost Control is an important process in construction project. It is widely practiced by contractors and needs to carry out throughout the life of project. The main objective of cost control of a project is to gain the maximum profit within the designated period within the budget. To monitor and control actual expenditure against the estimated project budget. The project budget is represented by the tender price / contract sum. According to Nunnally (1998), cost control of a project involves the measuring and collecting the cost record of a project and the work progress. It also involves the comparison of actual progress with the planning. The main objective of cost control of a project is to gain the maximum profit within the designated period and satisfactory quality of work. A systematic procedure of cost control will give a good result in collecting important data in estimating and controlling of the cost of the coming projects in future. After preparing the reports based on the actual costs, it is important to distribute the remaining budget for the future periods and estimate or re-estimate the cost of the work yet to be completed. Any new information must take into account since the commencement of contracts. It is important to ensure that there should not be any under claim or over claim of the work done. This is required to maintain a steady cash flow. Also it helps the client and the contractor to manage their expenditure and income. The cost control techniques generally used in construction projects are: Cost Value Reconciliation, Control of Project Cash flow, Break  ¿Ã‚ ½ Even Analysis, Budgetary Control, and Contractors cost Control, Cost Comparison, Schedule Control and Asset Register 2. INTRODUCTION The cost control is a process that should be continued through the construction period to ensure that the cost of the building is kept within the agreed cost limits. The cost control can be divided into major areas: the control of cost during design stages and the control of cost by the contractors once the construction project has started. According to Nunnaly (1998), cost control of projects involves the measuring and collecting the cost record of a project and the work progress. It involves the comparison of actual progress with the planning. The main aims of the cost control: a) To gain the maximum profit within the designated period within the budget. b) To keep the total expenditure within the amount agreed by client, frequently based on approximate estimate of cost prepared by the quantity surveyor in the early stages of the design process. There is a need for strict cost discipline thought all stages of design and execution to ensure that the initial estimate, tender figure and final account sum all are closely related. c) To give the building client good value for money  ¿Ã‚ ½ a building which is soundly constructed, of satisfactory appearance and well suited to perform the functions for which it is required, combined with economical construction and layout. d) To achieve a balanced and logical distribution of the available funds between the various parts of the building. The cost controlling system we can use as a tool for estimating the new projects based on previous experience. To win a new project As a quantity surveyor for a construction company to research this project, I have started with reading text books to get theoretical understanding of the subject. Thereafter I have discussed the technique of cost control with my colleague and managers to get practical knowledge of this application. 3. WHAT IS COST CONTROL? Controlling how much is spent on a certain item on project. Anything above a certain amount needs approval of higher authority The process of controlling the expenses of cost in a project, from the starting of client ¿Ã‚ ½s idea to the completion and final payment on site An active process to control the causes of the cost changes, to document those cost changes, and to monitor cost fluctuations within the project 4. STATEMENT OF FACTS IN COST CONTROL According to Nunnally (1998), cost control of a project involves the measuring and collecting the cost record of a project and the work progress. It also involves the comparison of actual progress with the planning. The main objective of cost control of a project is to gain the maximum profit within the designated period and satisfactory quality of work. A systematic procedure of cost control will give a good result in collecting important data in estimating and controlling of the cost of the coming projects in future. 5. THE PURPOSE OF COST CONTROL To monitor and control actual expenditure against the estimated project budget The project budget is represented by the tender price / contract sum. 6. THE IMPORTANCE OF COST CONTROL There has in recent years been great need for an understanding of construction economics and cost control, particularly during the design stage of projects. The importance of this due largely to the following:- * The increased pace of development in general has resulted in clients being less likely to tolerate delays caused by redesigning buildings when tenders are too high. * The clients ¿Ã‚ ½ requirements today are more complex than those of their Victorian counterparts. A more effective system of control is therefore desirable from inception up to the completion of the final account, and thereafter during cost-in-use. * The clients of the industry often represent large organizations and financial institutions. This is a result of takeovers, mergers and some public ownership. De-nationalization has often meant that these large organizations remain intact as a single entity. There has thus been an increased emphasis on accountability in both the public and the private sectors of industry. The efficiency of these organizations at construction work is only as good as their advisers. * Contractor ¿Ã‚ ½s profit margins have in real terms been reduced considerably during the past decade. This resulted in their greater cost-consciousness in an attempt to redress possible losses and remain competitive. * There has, in general, been move towards the elimination of waste, and a greater emphasis on the efficient use of the world ¿Ã‚ ½s scarce resources. This has necessitated a desire for improved methods of forecasting and control of costs. * There is a general trend towards greater cost-effectiveness, and thus a need to examine construction cost, not solely in the context of initial costs, but in terms of whole-life costs. * World recession has generally produced a shortage of funds for capital purposes and construction in general. This has been coupled with high inflation and interest charges, resulting in an increase in the cost of construction. Although the relative costs compared with other commodities may be similar, the apparent high costs have resulted in greater caution, particularly on the part of clients. 7. POST  ¿Ã‚ ½ CONTRACT COST CONTROL Project cost control commences at project inception stage by the client. Thereafter costs are controlled continuously and at every stage of the project up to finalization of the construction contract. 8. THE PROJECT BUDGET For cost control on a project, the construction plan and the associated cash flow estimates can provide the baseline reference for subsequent project monitoring and control. For schedules, progress on individual activities and the achievement of milestone completions can be compared with the project schedule to monitor the progress of activities. The final detailed cost estimate provides a baseline for the assessment of financial performance during the project. To the extent that costs are within the detailed cost estimate, the project is considered to be under financial control. Overruns in particular cost categories signal the possibility of problems and give an indication of exactly what problems are being encountered. Expenses oriented construction planning and control focus upon the categories included in the final detailed cost estimation/cost plan prepared by the contractors. For cost control monitoring purpose, the original detail cost estimate is typically converted to a project budget, and the project budget is used subsequently as a guide for management. Specific items in the detailed cost estimate become job cost elements. Expenses incurred during the course of the project are recorded in specific job cost accounts to be compared with the original cost estimate in each category. In addition to costs, information on material utilization and labor inputs and productivities within each cost code is also typically monitored in the project budget. With this information, actual materials usage and labor employed can be compared to the expected requirements. As a result, cost overruns or savings on particular items can be identified as due to changes in unit price, labor productivity or in the amount of material consumed. The number of cost code associated with a particular project can vary considerably. For contractors, on the order of four hundred separate cost accounts might be used on a project. In developing or implementing a system of cost accounts / cost codes an appropriate numbering or coding system is essential to facilitate communication of information and proper aggregation of cost information. Particular cost accounts are used to indicate the expenditures associated with the specific projects and to indicate the expenditures on particular item throughout an organization. Cost coding is also used for comparing the budget with actual expenditure, which is typically referred to as cost/value reconciliation. Sample of material requisition form showing the cost code with the allowance and remaining allowanceSample of project budget summary 9. TECHNIQUES AND WAYS FOR CONTROLLING COSTS The most important of all the cost control techniques is to appoint a small team of qualified and experienced people well versed in the financial management team to manage the daily finances of the company in a very professional and systematic manner. The cost control software can be helpful in doing the work in comparatively less time and with more accuracy. A. COST VALUE RECONCILATION The cost and value of the project must be reconciled and monitored regularly. This allows a contractor to manage and control actual against estimated expenditure. This will also allow the contractor to monitor costs and value movement and importantly also monitor profit levels. For the purpose of cost control, it is not sufficient to consider only the past records of costs and revenues incurred in a project. Good project commercial managers should focus upon future revenues, future costs and technical problems. For this purpose, traditional financial accounting schemes are not adequate to reflect the dynamic nature of building project. Accounts typically focus on recording routine costs and past expenditures associated with activities. W.H.Lucas and T.L.Morrison,  ¿Ã‚ ½Management Accounting for construction Contracts, Management Accounting, 1981, PP- 59  ¿Ã‚ ½ 65. Sample of a typical cost/value Reconciliation B. CONTROL OF PROJECT CASH FLOW A positive cash flow is critical to any business. On building projects cash flow is typically generated from the periodic payment for works completed, i.e. interim payments. Cash flow forecasts are unusually prepared and based on the program of works for internal purposes and for use by the client. Sample cash flow forecast C. BREAK _- EVEN ANALYSIS A break even analysis determines the point at which one method becomes superior to another method of accomplishing some task or objective. Break even analysis is a common and important part of cost control. Example:- One illustration of break even analysis would be compare two methods of road construction for a road that involves a limited amount of cut-and-fill earth work. It would be possible earthwork by hand or by bulldozer. If the manual method were adopted, the fixed costs would be low or nonexistent. Payment would be done on a daily basis and would call for direct supervision by a foreman. The cost would be calculated by estimating the time required and multiplying this time by the average wages of the men employed. The men could also be paid on a piece-work basis. Alternatively, this work could be done by a bulldozer which would have to be moved in from another site. Let us assume that the cost of the hand labor would be $0.60 per cubic meter and the bulldozer would cost $0.40 per cubic meter and would require $100 to move in from another site. The move-in cost for the bulldozer is a fixed cost, and is independent of the quantity of the earthwork handled. If the bulldozer is used, no econ omy will result unless the amount of earthwork is sufficient to carry the fixed cost plus the direct cost of the bulldozer operation. Breakeven Example for Earthwork Excavation If, on a set of co-ordinates, cost in dollars is plotted on the vertical axis and units of production on the horizontal line parallel to the x  ¿Ã‚ ½ axis. If variable cost per unit output is constant, then the total cost for any number of unit production will be the sum of the fixed cost and the variable cost multiplied by the number of units of production, or F+NV. If the cost data two processes or methods, one of which has higher variable cost, but lower fixed cost than the other are plotted on the same graph, the total cost lines will intersect at some point. At this point the levels of production and total cost are the same. This point known as the  ¿Ã‚ ½breakeven ¿Ã‚ ½ point, since at this level one method is as economical other. Referring the above Figure the breakeven point at which quantity the bulldozer alternative and the manual labor alternative become equal is at 500 cubic meters. We could have found this same result algebraically by writing F+NV = F ¿Ã‚ ½+NV ¿  ½, where F and V are the fixed and variable costs for the manual method and, F ¿Ã‚ ½ and V ¿Ã‚ ½ are the corresponding values for the bulldozer method. Since we all values are known except N, we can solve for N using the formula N = (F ¿Ã‚ ½  ¿Ã‚ ½ F) / (V-V ¿Ã‚ ½) D. BUDGETARY CONTROL Budgets are used for planning and controlling the income and expenditure in many different organizations. It is through the budget that a company ¿Ã‚ ½s plans and objectives can be converted into quantitative and monetary terms. Without these a company has little control. The budget may represent a total sum divided among a number of subheadings or work packages. It is important that the various sub headings include a timescale, since the expenditure by both the contractor and the client needs to be matched against income or the availability of funds. While the contractor will have a work program for the project and this can be costed, the procedure may be disrupted by delays on the part of all those involved and through changes (variations) to the original scheme. This information will give a rate of expenditure and a rate of income throughout the project, and by deducting income from expenditure the amount of capital required at the different times can then be calculated. The contractor will need to aggregate this information from all projects in order company position the company position. For budgeting purpose these data are prepared in advance of work being carried out on site. The information will also be collected after the execution of the works in order to establish the  ¿Ã‚ ½as done ¿Ã‚ ½ position and to facilitate a comparison with the budget. This known as budgetary control. In common with other control techniques, budgetary control is a continuous process undertaken throughout the contract duration. When variances from the budget occur, the contractor will need to assess the reason for them. E. CONTRACTORS COST CONTROL The contractor, having priced successfully enough to win the contract through tendering, must now ensure that the work can be completed for the estimated costs. One of the duties of the contractor ¿Ã‚ ½s quantity surveyors is to monitor the expenditure and advice site management of action that should be taken. This process also includes the costs of subcontractors, since these forms a part of the main contractor ¿Ã‚ ½s total expenditure. The contractor ¿Ã‚ ½s surveyors also comment on the profitability of different site operations. Where loss-making situations are encountered, decisions need to be taken to reverse this position if at all possible. The fact that estimators can be wide of the mark when estimating, even with common items, the contractor would seek reason for such a wide variation between costs and prices. This will be done for two reasons; first, in an attempt to recoup some of the loss; second, to avert such errors in future work. This situation may have arisen for one of the following reasons. * The character of the work is different from that envisaged at the time of tender. * The conditions for executing the work have changed. * Adverse weather conditions severely disrupted the work * There was inefficient use of resources. * There was excessive wastage of materials. * Plant had to stand idle for long periods of time. * Delays had occurred because of a lack of accurate design information F. COST COMPARISION In practice it is always difficult make to comparison between costs and valuations, since either the full items of expenditure are unavailable or the valuation has only been approximately prepared. However, the contractor does need to determine which contracts are profitable and which are not, and also to determine which operations gain or lose money. The information which is the generated may be used to form the basis of contractual claims or to assist in future tendering and the contractor ¿Ã‚ ½s selection of projects for which to tender. Both the actual profit and percentage on cost can be calculated from the given table. This offers the contractor an indication of the financial Trent, although in order to measure this realistically these figures need to be compared with their respective budgets. It is unclear from these data alone whether the contract was successful. By inference it can be suggested that the project reached its most successful stage in terms of profit alone at month 7. The profit  ¿Ã‚ ½expenditure ratio, however, had been decreasing since the commencement of the contract. This is also typical feature of fixed price contracts if the anticipated profit has been disturbed evenly throughout the project. Towards the end of the contract the project was probably losing money. For example compare the expenditure with the valuation for the month 9. This may suggest that work has been deliberately overvalued during this early stage. Month (Valuation  ¿Ã‚ ½ expenditure) G. SCHEDULE CONTROL In addition to cost control, commercial managers must also give considerable attention to monitoring schedules. (E.g. variation schedules) Construction typically involves a deadline for work completion, so contractual agreements will force attention to schedules. More generally, delays in construction represent additional costs to the client due to late facility occupancy or other factors. Just as costs incurred are compared to budgeted costs, actual activity durations may be compared to expected durations. In this process, forecasting the time to complete particular activities may be required. The methods used for forecasting completion times of activities are directly analogous to those used for forecasting. For example, a typical estimating formula might be : Df = Wht Where Df is the forecast duration, W is the amount of work, and ht is the observed productivity to time t. As with cost control, it is important to devise efficient and cost effective methods for gathering information on actual project accomplishment. Planned Vs Actual Expenditures H. ASSET REGISTER A part of Cost control techniques maintain and updating the register of the company ¿Ã‚ ½s inventory of assets, e.g. plant and equipment. The inventory should list all of the items that have been purchased by the company, their date of acquisition, initial value, current value (approximate), and/or depreciation, age and expected renewal date. The location of the asset and, if appropriate, the manufacturer ¿Ã‚ ½s serial number should be included. This register will remain an active document and be constantly updated. The inventory provides an accurate checklist for insurance purpose and to substantiate claims should these be necessary. The asset register can also be employed for taxation purposes in respect of depreciation and replacement funding. It acts as a financial register for the company ¿Ã‚ ½s assets. 10. ILLUSTRATIONS (TABLES AND GRAPHS) A. PROPORTION COMPLETION Vs EXPENDITURE FOR AN ACTIVITY B. PLANNED VS ACTUAL PROGRESS OVER TIME ON A PROJECT C. COST CODE SAMPLE D. VARIATION SCHEDULE SAMPLE E. LIGHT FITTINGS TRACKING SCHEDULE 11. CONCLUSION The main objective of cost control is to minimize and reduce the project costs. Cost control is necessary for all types of project disregarding its sizes. Most of the contractors have their own cost control system. The amount of detail and time interval between cost control reports must be considered, which is different according to level of management for which they have prepared mostly, it will be on monthly basis. After preparing the reports based on the actual costs, it is important to distribute the remaining budget for the future periods and estimate or re-estimate the cost of the work yet to be completed. Any new information must take into account since the commencement of contracts. It is important to ensure that there should not be any under claim or over claim of the work done. This is required to maintain a steady cash flow. Also, it helps the client and the contractor to manage their expenditure and income. The cost control techniques generally used in construction projects are: Cost Value Reconciliation, Control of Project Cash flow, Break  ¿Ã‚ ½ Even Analysis, Budgetary Control, and Contractors cost Control, Cost Comparison, Schedule Control and Asset Register.

I Am Ignorant :: Graduate Admissions Essays

I Am Ignorant, but Not Stupid Education: the path from cocky ignorance to miserable uncertainty (Mark Twain) Â   When I began my undergraduate studies, I only vaguely anticipated the number of books, the infinitude of ideas, the magnitude of creative urges that existed. Now that I have finally come to some awareness of what it means to be educated, I realize that I am not. Graduate study seems an opportunity to continue studying, but more profoundly, more independently, and with more direction than ever before. Â   I have loved studying at the University, and have tried to make the fullest uses of the rich resources here. But leaving the University, leaving the United States, to study abroad would expose me to such an entirely new range of people and possibilities. I want to continue in my education because I cannot imagine discontinuing it, and more, because I have a singularly exciting opportunity before me. As my peers are preparing job applications and buying business suits, I want nothing more than to spend another few years in Scotland, learning about its tremendous tradition of scholarship and endeavor, and hoping to contribute something to such a tradition. Â   The past few years have been enriching beyond all expectations. Specifically, the classes in music, modern literature, and narrative nonfiction writing. These are the fields I am most interested in. My college years have allowed me to focus on a few specific fields, not to mention regions, of interest. My school work this academic year has been particularly influential in my decision to continue on next year as a post-graduate. I have been researching and writing a major thesis about modern American narrative nonfiction for my program of study here at the University. The process has been thrilling, simply put. Working independently, under the supervision of carefully-chosen advisors, has been at times frustrating, but more often enlightening, revealing my strengths and weaknesses both. Â   I look forward to working on an advanced degree at the University of XXX because it will allow me to continue doing relatively independent work, in combination with more structured class work.

The American Bald Eagle Essay -- essays research papers

I chose the American bald eagle because it is one of the fastest and strongest species of eagles. It is the national symbol. The Congress adopted it as the national symbol in 1782. I think it was adopted as the national bird of the United States because the Roman soldiers used the eagle as a symbol of courage and power. In the early 1800's, Americans called the Bald Eagle, the American eagle. Here is some of the biology of the Bald Eagle. Bald Eagles do a very good job at their part in the food web. Bald eagles also have an interesting name. The scientific name for bald eagles is Haliaeetus leucocephalus. The family order is accipitridae and falconiformes. The young of bald eagles are called eaglets or eyasses. Bald eagles are warm-blooded and breathe oxygen from the air. A female will lay 1 to 3 eggs every five years, with at least 1hatching. Although all Bald Eagles are consumers, none of them eat plants to get their chemical energy. Some birds in the eagle community are African fish eagle, Stellerà ­s sea eagle, white-bellied sea eagle and the palm-nut vulture. Bald eagles, out of all eagles are carnivores; they eat fish, there is no such thing as a herbivore or even an omnivore Eagle. The young of a bald eagle are fully fledged (just like their parents and ready to live in the world) at about the age of 4 months. After hatching, newborn eagles are all white and blind. Male bald eagles generally measure 3 feet from the end of the beak to the tip of...

The Patriot Act :: Terrorism Terrorist International Education Essay

The Patriot Act As the nation watched in horror the atrocities of September 11th, Nassim Benamara watched his future slip away from him. " I was very worried, because I was supposed to start school a week later in Boston, and I did not know if I could still come to Boston," he said. Two weeks later, he boarded a plane from Algiers, Algeria, with his twin brother Saleem, to attend school here. Three years later, Saleem and Nassim have still not made it back to their home country. â€Å"We hear a lot of stories of international students who go home for vacation, and when they come back they are not let back into the country. We do not want to risk this, so we don't go home ever," Saleem said. Such stories are the result of the unpopular Patriot Act, which was passed on October 26th, 2001, just a few weeks after the terrorist attacks on U.S. soil. President Bush then declared that the act was necessary, to make sure that every so-called â€Å"international student† was in fact attending school. Among the components of the act, the Patriot Act greatly restrains international students in their rights. All their medical, library and school files are available to various agencies, including the CIA, FBI and INS. The school files are part of an online database accessible only to those three agencies, named "SEVIS," or "Student and Exchange Visitor Information System". All schools in the United States with foreign students had to turn over those files by August of last year, or risk a penalty. With just a click of the button, anyone at the INS can find out the student's grades, classes, the address, and much more. Many organizations, such as the ACLU, were quick to denounce the Patriot Act, and the SEVIS registration, as un-democratic. Yet, in this era of terrorism, safety can come at a high risk, David Chanderlain said. As the head of the International Student Office at Northeastern University, it is his job to make sure that all international students are up to date with the new SEVIS forms, that they're taking enough classes, and much more. "Many people don't agree with the Patriot Act, but right now it's necessary," he said. Salim and Nassem agreed with him. "I don't like to have my home searched, I don't like to be treated like a terrorist, but I understand why they do it. It is for my safety too, and there is not much I can do.

Logic on a New Level Essay

In 1995, a talk show host, by the name of Rush Limbaugh was quoted while responding to a newspaper article written about a study completed by the NCEA (National Center for Economic Alternatives). According to this newspaper article, the study done by the NCEA claimed that American farmers use chemical fertilizers, and that due to our large economy, small businesses, and families, America is a waste generating country. Therefore, the purpose of this essay is to analyze the logic of Rush Limbaugh’s speech, given to argue against this study. In the first segment of Rush’s speech he refers to the NCEA as â€Å"environmentalist wackos† which is a common fallacy made throughout his statement. This is referred to as a tu quoque fallacy, which shows that just because you are connected with a certain group of people does not mean you apply to commonly used stereotypes. The NCEA may have done a study relating to the environment but that doesn’t mean they are environmentalists. When Rush refers to the NCEA as â€Å"wackos†, this is attacking personal character that is not directly relevant to the issue at hand, this fallacy is know as ad hominem. Rush argues with the study, by first defending American farmers and exploiting the fact that farmers â€Å"never† receive praise for feeding the world. We can conclude two fallacies from this accusation, one being over-generalizing( using such words as never can easily be proven wrong) and ignoratio elenchi, which is an irrelevant response. Feeding the world and using chemical fertilizers are two different topics that cannot be compared logically. If you consider the statement closely you will also know that farmers do receive praise, their paycheck is the reward. When the NCEA concluded their study, they stated that America was waste generating. Rush attacked the NCEA for not considering our â€Å"economy a beckon of hope†. He argued that people from all around the world want to come to America. This is again a ignoratio fallacy because it is simply irrelevant information. Rush is also attempting to appeal to a certain popular  prejudice, he stated â€Å"American families have worked generations for a high standard of living, no they’re not held up for praise. No! Instead they’re all trashed†. This statement is an ad populum fallacy, because he is appealing to a certain group without any connection to America being a waste generating society. He continues on during his speech to sarcastically suggest that the NCEA would rather us give up our technology and â€Å"live more like the Soviets†. This is an ad poplum statement appealing to people that fear communism. Rush is attacking the personal character of Soviets, which is ad hominem and he is committing a tu quoque, which is stating that just because someone is a Soviet does not make them primitive. This statement can be simply concluded as a ignoratio statement and a slippery slope(just because one event takes place does not place any connection to another event) because it is completely irrelevant to America and its waste. In Rush’s conclusion he tells the â€Å"environmentalist wackos† to shut up and stop speaking their opinion. Rush is familiar of the rights of every American, their freedom of speech, and is violating other peoples views and is being unconstitutional. Rush thinks that by shutting up the environmentalists and asking them to turn to more constructive work like himself, he will eliminate the problem. This is a straw-man fallacy, because he is twisting the issue around. After learning about fallacies and there use in proving someone to be illogical, I have determined that Rush Limbaugh has a very biest view point and does not always use the correct solutions for a problem. He comes across like a very strong assertive person with a convincing argument but does not use logic to strengthen his beliefs.