Theoretical Considerations Regarding Hazards And Risks Environmental Sciences Essay

The cognition of natural and technological hazards is of the extreme importance for carry oning hazard and impact appraisal surveies, every bit good as land usage planning and exigency response planning. This whole mechanism significantly contributes to the society ‘s sustainable development. For the overall comprehension of this issue, it is extremely relevant to specify the repeating constructs of this work, viz. jeopardy and hazard.The jeopardy constructTo get down with, a short ethimological analysis of the word â€Å" jeopardy † is necessary. This term has been taken by the Gallic from Arabic, where it means dice game ( Mac and Petrea, 2002 ) . Harmonizing to the Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English, 2010, † jeopardy † means â€Å" something that may be unsafe, or cause accidents or jobs † . In 1992, the United Nations International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction secretariat published a multilingual lexicon so as to clear up and unite the significances of such footings. In this dictionary, jeopardy is defined as â€Å" a baleful event or the possibility for a phenomenon with destructive potency to look in a individual part and in a given period of clip † . Another definition is offered by the Grand Larousse Dictionary, volume V, cited by ZA?voianu and Dragomirescu in 1994: â€Å" accidental and, by and large, unforeseeable interface between two or more causal series, whose common dealingss are purely defined in every minute and whose comparative independency can merely be attributed to our ignorance and impotence † . Scheidegger, 1994, cited by ArmaAY , 2003 defined jeopardy as â€Å" the chance of rapid alteration of a system ‘s province or stable conditions † . In 1997 Grecu defined this construct as â€Å" the possibility that a potentially annihilating phenomenon appears in a certain period of clip and in a certain part. † In 1999 Octavia Bogdan and Elena Niculescu specify jeopardy as â€Å" a random phenomenon on a big graduated table, unpredictable, a deficiency of finding between clip and infinite, a qualitative lap, a threshold in the system ‘s development, downloading immense energy and doing upset, instability on the natural environmental development ‘s graduated table, in its manner towards a new province of equilibrium † . In 2000 Ozunu defines the construct under treatment as aˆza state of affairs with the potency of an accident † ; in 2001, BA?lteanu states that jeopardy is aˆza endangering event, stand foring the possibility for a potentially detrimental phenomenon to go on. † Harmonizing to him, harm to people, goods and the environment occur. Alexander, 2000, cited by Thywissen, 2006, defines hazard as aˆzan utmost geophysical event that can do a catastrophe. aˆsExtreme ‘ refers to an either positive or negative characteristic, harmonizing to the tendency it is related to. The jeopardy ‘s cardinal properties are: location, clip, magnitude and frequence. Many utmost phenomena are perennial in clip and predictable in footings of location. We define hazard as an utmost event arising from the biosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere or atmosphere. † Mac, 2003, considers hazard as aˆzthe beginning of an utmost event with energy discharge in a certain minute and with a instead unforeseeable magnitude. In fact, jeopardy can be referred to as aˆza phenomenological class that refers to objects and phenomena ( air multitudes, H2O, lithomass, biomass, people, twisters, epidemics, temblors, avalanches etc. ) , to their actions ( inundations, clay flows, landslides, illness etc. ) every bit good as to their characteristics † ( Mac, 2003 ) . In 2003, Cardona, cited by Thywissen, 2006, offers another definition of the term: aˆzthe possibility for a natural and unsafe event to go on in a certain clip and infinite † . Generally, the construct of jeopardy is used to mention to a latent danger or to an external hazard factor of a system or exposed capable. A jeopardy is composed of three basic elements ( C. A. Ericson, 2005 ) : 1. Dangerous belongings – the basic beginning of the danger that creates the jeopardy, i.e. a unsafe energy beginning etc. 2. Initiation mechanism – the event that triggers or initiates the happening of the jeopardy, transforming the jeopardy from a inactive province to an active 1. 3. Target and menace – the individual, object, state of affairs vulnerable to damage caused by the materialisation of the jeopardy. These three elements compose the jeopardy trigon shown in figure 2.1: Figure 2.1 – The jeopardy trigon ( C. A. Ericson, 2005 ) The jeopardy trigon illustrates that all three above mentioned are interlinked. All three constituents are necessary in order to organize a jeopardy. The remotion of one portion of the trigon consequences in the riddance of the jeopardy, because it can non take to an incident. By extenuating the induction mechanism the chance of the incident to happen is reduced, and accordingly by extenuating an component of the unsafe belongings or mark and menace the badness of the incident will be reduced. These theoretical facets and categorization prove to be important in any undertaking refering jeopardy designation, extenuation, and hazard and impact appraisal. The basic construct of jeopardy theory can be summarized as follows ( C. A. Ericson, 2005 ) : Hazards are deterministic entities and non a random 1s ; Hazards are constituted accidentally in systems ; Hazards are predictable and hence can be controlled and prevented ; Hazards can be identified by their constituents ; Hazards will happen taking history of the constituents involved ; Hazards consequence in incidents. One of the term ‘s most recent definitions is the 1 offered in 2009 by the International Strategy for Disaster Reduction Secretariat: â€Å" a unsafe phenomenon, substance, human activity or status that may do loss of life, hurt or other wellness impacts, belongings harm, loss of supports and services, societal and economic break, or environmental harm. † As it can be noticed from the above-named definitions, jeopardy is characterized through certain parametric quantities, such as geographical location, strength ( magnitude ) , frequence and its chance to go on. In many of these definitions, one can detect the accent lies upon entropy, deficiency of determinacy and capriciousness ( Mac 2003 ) . In order to measure these phenomena ‘s possibility to go on, surveies refering their extreme values are considered. Furthermore, in all these definitions the construct of jeopardy has a instead negative intension, since it implies a certain grade of danger. Hazard can take the signifier of some remarkable phenomena or of some combines 1s, in footings of infinite and clip. Hazard appraisal purposes at identifying: the likeliness of a specified jeopardy to go on in the hereafter, in a certain period of clip, its magnitude and impact country ( Pine, 2009 ) . For the appraisal of certain jeopardies such as inundations, temblors and vents there are good established, predefined methods. The consequences of these ratings are extremely relevant in footings of lucubrating land usage planning schemes and in implementing accident bar steps.Hazard vs. hazardThe term â€Å" jeopardy † is closely related with the term â€Å" hazard † . Not few are the instances when confusion arises between the significances of these two constructs. This is why it is necessary to separate between them. Hazards are phenomena whose manifestations can barely be predicted and controlled. They have negative effects on population and on the environment. Imputing the characteristic of jeopardy to a natural or anthropic phenomenon is non conditioned by the production of mater ial harm or by the being of victims, but by the potency of these effects to go on. ( Baldea, 2007 ) . Merely when that jeopardy or phenomenon exceeds certain critical values, taking to material harm or casualties, does it go hazard. Therefore, a jeopardy is the menace that an event might go on and non the event itself. Should it impact a human community, to a certain extent, it becomes hazard. It must be mentioned that the term â€Å" hazard † is attributed assorted significances, being used in different contexts. Its definitions have societal, economic, political and environmental values. In order to better understand its deductions, a short diachronic analysis is necessary. To get down with, the term under treatment was foremost used in the fifteenth century, when it referred to the trade ‘s fiscal danger ( Proske, 2008 ) . Initially, this construct was associated with economic activities, being so used in the theory of chance and gaming. In the nineteenth century it is integrated in economic system, experiential doctrine and determination theory, whereas in the twentieth century it was used as political term in atomic engineering in order to gauge the degree of security that was acceptable for people. Until the 8th decennary of the old century constructs such as hazard, jeopardy and hazard direction were associated with natural phenomena. Hazard and natural or anthropic jeopardies analysis became an interdisciplinary kingdom of survey with its specific nomenclature merely in the last 30 old ages. The Longman Dictionary for Contemporary English, 2010, defines hazard as â€Å" the possibility that something bad, unpleasant, or unsafe may go on † . In 2007 ISDR defines hazard as â€Å" the combination of the chance of an event and its negative effects † . In 1999 Octavia Bogdan and Elena Niculescu define hazard as â€Å" the existent chance or possibility for a phenomenon to go on † . This event is someway expected and has negative reverberations, in response to which world can merely be inactive. Another definition is offered by Ozunu in 2000: â€Å" the chance that the existing jeopardy turns into an accident † . Alwang, 2001, cited by Thywissen, 2006, defines hazard as â€Å" the possible distribution of some known or unknown events. These are characterized by magnitude, frequence, continuance and history † . In the same twelvemonth, Peduzzi, cited by Brauch, 2005, considers risk aˆza step of possible losingss generated by a jeopardy of a certain magnitude, produced in a certain part and period of clip † . It must be stated that natural events can turn into social hazards when they surpass the immediate capacity of being counteracted or absorbed. They are, in most of the instances, utmost events. An utmost natural event is any event or series of events that shows a fleeting or durable fluctuation as compared to its common values. ( White, cited by ArmaAY , 2003 ) The widely accepted definition of hazard as the merchandise between the chance for an event to go on and the negative effects it may hold is expressed as follows: R= F x C ( Eq. 2.1 ) where: R- hazard ( losses/unit of clip ) , F- frequence of happening ( no. of events/unit of clip ) , C- effects ( losses/event ) . Hazard can besides be defined as â€Å" the chance of human exposure, of semisynthetic goods and of the environment to the action of a jeopardy of a certain magnitude and their exposure towards it † ( BA?lteanu, 2005 ) . For Petrea, 2009, hazard is â€Å" the possibility that some negative effects for human communities or losingss ( human lives, hurts, diminished agencies of subsistence, goods, harm of the environmental constituents ) appear as an interaction between natural or anthorpic jeopardies and territorial exposure † . This expression associates two distinguishable elements, viz. the jeopardy and the receiving system ( in most of the instances, a certain population ) . In most of the instances, the undermentioned expression is used: R= Hazard x Vulnerability ( Eq. 2.2 ) This underlines the relation between an event and its effects. In a certain country, the hazard is comparatively changeless. What differs is community exposure, in footings of its reaction to menaces or its degree of readiness to confront them. Harmonizing to the above-named expression, hazard may match to a high-frequency jeopardy and a low exposure or to a low-frequency jeopardy and high exposure. The disadvantage of this expression is that it does non see the population denseness, i.e. its exposure to hazard. Mitchell, 1990, cited by Brauch, 2005, completes this expression, sing jeopardy as a map of hazard, exposure, exposure and response: Hazard= degree Fahrenheit ( hazard ten exposure x exposure x response ) ( Eq. 2.3 ) where: hazard – the chance that negative effects appear, exposure – the size and characteristics of the open population, exposure – the potency of harm to bring forth and response refers to the enforced steps for hazard decrease. Another definition is given by Ozunu and Anghel in 2007: R = F x C x V ( Eq. 2.4 ) where: R – hazard ; F- frequence ; C – effects ; V- exposure ( – ) . The harm produced as a consequence of a catastrophe is really the consequence of the interaction among physical environmental factors ( clime, H2O, landscape etc. ) , population ( societal categories, civilization etc. ) and the built environment ( edifices, substructure etc. ) ( Mileti, 1999 ) . Therefore, jeopardy can be considered the pre-disaster state of affairs, when hazard does non look. A phenomenon ‘s development has three phases, more precisely: the jeopardy one, when merely hazard appears, the hazard phase, when jeopardy can impact human society and, eventually, the catastrophe. ( Alexander, 1993 ) In decision we can province that there are two types of hazards, viz. an acceptable one, where losingss are tolerable for the population and catastrophe, when losingss can non be tolerated by the local community.Categorization of jeopardies and hazardsAs antecedently mentioned, jeopardies and hazards are defined and characterized in multiple ways. In this chapter, a categorization is presented harmonizing to the most relevant features: beginning, effects, frequence, affected surface, etc.Categorization after beginningThe categorization of jeopardies harmonizing to their beginning is presented in table 2.1: Table 2.1 – Categorization after beginning ( BA?lteanu, 2005 ) :Natural jeopardiesEndogenousVolcanic eruptions, seismicityExogenousClimatic Cyclones, twister, storms, lightning, hail, hoar, drouth, etc. Geomorphologic Mass supplanting, eroding Hydrologic Flash-floods Oceanographic Rise of planetal ocean, El Nino Biological Epidemics, viruses, insect invasionsAnthropogenetic jeopardiesTechnologicalIndustrial, agricultural, transport accidentsHuman( Benedek, 2002 ) Social Poverty, unemployment, urbanisation, life style Medical Infectious, viral, chronic, degenerative diseases Demographic Emigration, population growing, aging of population Political Territorial, political differences2.3.2 Classification harmonizing to the manifestation mannerThe categorization of jeopardies harmonizing to their manifestation manner is presented in table 2.2 ( GoA?iu and Surdeanu, 2008 ) : Table 2.2 – Hazards categorization harmonizing to their manifestationViolent jeopardies– temblors – vents – severe storms, twister, etc. – local storms with hail etc. – catastrophic landslides, avalanchesHazards with progressive development– Mediterranean disturbances ( Mediterranean cyclones with retrograde development )Hazards with slow development– drouth – severe drouth – radiation and vaporization mists2.3.3 Categorization after continuanceHazards can besides be classified harmonizing to their temporal development. Harmonizing to ArmaAY , 2008 the categorization after the continuance of jeopardies is presented in table 2.3: Table 2.3 – Hazards categorization harmonizing to their continuanceWith sudden happening and rapid developmentEndogenous, tectonic jeopardies, sudden mass supplantings, flash – inundationsWith long continuanceTerrain debasement, drouths, desertification2.3.4 Categorization after affected surface, and continuance of effectsHazards can endanger assorted extents of a district. Within the affected surface the effects can prevail for assorted sums of clip. Harmonizing to Chardon, 1990 and Grecu, 1997 a categorization after the affected surface and the continuance of effects is presented in table 2.4: Table 2.4 – Hazards categorization harmonizing to affected surface and continuance of effectsCalamity typeAffected surfaceDuration of effectsExamplesGiga calamity100 – 510 mil. km2 several old ages volcanic eruptionsMega calamity1 – 100 mil. km2 several months big temblors volcanic eruptions tropical drouthsMeso calamity10.000 – 1.000.000 km2 several hebdomads – a few months volcanic eruptions temblors, cold moving ridges tropical stormsCalamity100 – 10.000 km2 a few hebdomads little temblors, twister exceeding rainsLocal phenomenaunder 100 km2 a few yearss – a few hebdomads landslides hail storms The present thesis focuses on the appraisal with optoelectronic engineerings of two major jeopardies from the above mentioned categorizations: Natural jeopardies – volcanic ash by active and inactive remote feeling Technological jeopardies – monitoring and patterning the impact of SO2 emanations associated with big burning workss.NATECH jeopardiesThis thesis focuses both on natural and anthropogenetic jeopardies individually. In order to develop efficient schemes for measuring hazards and impact, the NATECH ( natural jeopardies which trigger technological accidents ) rule is necessary to be considered when measuring either of the two above mentioned types of jeopardy. Current EU ordinances in the field of hazard appraisal and catastrophe direction ( European Commission, 2010 ) stress the necessity of a multi-risk and multi-hazard attack in all natural and anthropogenetic jeopardy and hazard surveies. Therefore, there is a turning involvement in the scientific community and among stakeholders sing natural jeopardies which trigger technological accidents ( NATECHs ) . NATECHs have important negative effects on human wellness, the environment and the economic system. The addition in the figure of such events is closely linked with the exponential technological development of the past decennaries, due to the variegation of engineerings, the turning figure of personal exposed, and the substances used in the technological procedures. The effects of NATECH events have become more terrible within this timeframe chiefly due to the exposure of the population life near these installations. Given these facts, there is an pressing demand for raising consciousness about bar and readiness steps refering these high effect low chance events ( Cruz and Okada, 2008 ) . Due to the complexness of NATECH events, their word picture is instead hard, and many NATECHs are analyzed and assessed as separate natural or technological events ( Embelton and Embelton-Hamann, 1997 ) . One needs to take into history that the effects of such an event differ in complexness from the effects of the two events taken individually ( Cruz and Krausmann, 2008 ) . Therefore, there is a demand for scientific research on the interactions and dealingss between natural jeopardies and technological accidents. Addressing NATECHs requires a combined attempt of industrial and technological hazard direction specializers working together with specializers concentrating on natural jeopardy probes. The specific features of a NATECH event ( Domino impacts, multiple effects ) need specific steps for the bar, response and recovery after such an event. An integrated hazard and impact direction scheme must include the possibility of NATECHs to happen, and necessitate specialised planning for extenuation, response, and recovery ( Ozunu et al. , 2011 ) The Activities Report On the Collaboration Agreement between the International Strategy for Disaster Reduction of the United Nations and the Directorate General Joint Research Center of the European Commission proposes a scheme for the extenuation of NATECH events by: iˆ Industry hazard direction specifically turn toing the possible impacts of natural jeopardies on technological installings. Additional hazard direction processs ( Figure 2.2 ) in order to cut down the exposure to NATECHs: the usage of excess safety systems, natural jeopardy resistant designs, guidelines to inform industry about NATECH planning, and strategic arrangement of risky substances inside a unit. Figure 2.2 – Catastrophe Management processs ( Torok et al. , 2009 ) Efficient Emergency planning, including bar and extenuation, and response planning for NATECHs at all degrees of authorities. The purpose of the Risk Analysis procedure is to cut down uncertainnesss by increasing safety degrees by developing more efficient Emergency Plans, offering immediate determinations, detailed, accurate and steady instructions ( ( Torok et al. , 2009 ) iˆ Land usage planning, as an of import tool for setting-up insularity margins in order to protect occupants populating near risky installations. ( Christou et al.,2006 quoted by Torok et Al. 2011c ) . Article 13 of the SEVESO III Directive ( Directive 2012/18/EU ) provinces that: â€Å" Member States shall guarantee that the aims of forestalling major accidents and restricting the effects of such accidents for human wellness and the environment are taken into history in their land-use policies or other relevant policies † Information and instruction of the populace, authorities bureaus and all stakeholders involved in exigency direction, including decision-makers. iˆ Public engagement in NATECH hazard decrease planning, in order to better understand the perceptual experience of the degree of the NATECH hazard and the degree at which this hazard is considered acceptable ( Ozunu et al. , 2011 )Qualitative and quantitative methods for placing jeopardies and measuring hazardsA systematic designation of possible environmental impacts atmospheric pollutants have, every bit good as a strict analysis of their magnitude is required. The intent of such a procedure can be divided in two major issues, on one manus to bring forth quantitatively accurate appraisal of peculiar hazard and a comprehensive list of possible environmental impacts, and on the other manus produce a principle for doing public policy determinations that is both good reasoned, and recognized as legitimate and acceptable by the socio-economical factors. A complex environmental impact appraisal ( EIA ) and hazard appraisal ( RA ) methodological analysis requires assorted sets of informations about beginning footings, emanations, imissions, exposure, local weather forecasting, terrain informations etc.. Most of the air scattering theoretical accounts have been developed for the anticipation of lee concentration of air pollutants and for the appraisal of short-run and medium-term effects of these pollutants. The quality of consequences obtained utilizing these patterning systems depend largely on the versatility and quality of input informations and the right pick of the theoretical account ( Torok et al. , 2011a ) . In instance of EIA surveies, the medium-term effects appraisal requires emanation and meteoric informations for several months in order to obtain a realistic distribution of the largely contaminated countries. The consequence of the complex terrain on the air motion in the commixture bed is important. Therefore the meteoric information for the modeling period should be calculated sing the air flow above the complex terrain. For RA, the appraisal of immediate effects of ague exposure requires on-site informations for a short clip period. These informations sets must incorporate information about emitted substances ( type and concentration ) every bit good as real-time local meteorological informations, which along with terrain informations can be used in a rapid environmental and risk appraisal, which is a valuable tool for on-site exigency planning in instance of accidental or deliberated releases of toxic substances in the ambiance ( Torok et al. , 2011a ) . In the field of hazard analysis and hazard appraisal there are differences of sentiment sing the usage of qualitative or quantitative hazard analysis methods. The qualitative-quantitative factor is the basic belongings of jeopardies analyses methods. Most of the analysis methods are developed in order to place jeopardies and to find the hazard of that jeopardy turning into an accident. For finding the accident hazard of the identified jeopardy, a methodological analysis for the word picture of chance and magnitude parametric quantities must be used. There were developed both qualitative and quantitative methods, which are successfully used, each methods holding its specific advantages and disadvantages ( Torok et al. , 2011a ) .Qualitative methods used in jeopardy analysisA qualitative analysis implies the usage of qualitative standards, utilizing different classs for parametric quantities separation, with qualitative definition which set up the graduated table for each class. Besides, qualitative determinations are made, based on the field experience, in order to delegate elements into classs. This attack is subjective, but it allows a higher generalisation grade, being less restrictive.2.5.1.1 Designation of jeopardiesThe designation of technological jeopardies is the basic measure in hazard appraisal procedure. Hazards appear in the industry all the clip, due to the procedure and runing conditions of the installings and the physical, chemical and toxicological belongingss of the substances used in these procedures. This is why it is extremely of import to place the substances ‘ risky belongingss and the operating conditions that put at hazard these procedures, the series of events that may take to the materialisation of a jeopardy. In order to develop an in-depth survey of jeopardies and hazard analysis, the risky belongingss of the substances must be identified and assessed in order to find conditions or non they pose a jeopardy to human life, the environment of the technological procedure. From a qualitative point of position this can be achieved utilizing checklists. A comprehensive checklist used in the appraisal of jeopardies and hazards posed by substances is presented in table 2.5: Table 2.5 – Hazardous belongingss of substances- Checklist ( Hyatt, 2003 )TypePropertyGeneral belongingssMolecular construction Freezing point Melting point Vapour force per unit area Boiling temperature Critical force per unit area Critical temperature Critical volume Density Specific heat Viscosity Thermal conduction Fluid denseness Latent vaporisation heat Dielectric invariable Electric conductionFlammabilityExplosion/ Flammability bounds Explosion threshold Auto ignition temperature Minimal ignition energy OverheatingCorrosionCorrosive for building stuffs Incompatibility with other stuffsPolymerizationDecompositionFeatures of polymerisation Features of decomposition Features of hydrolysisImpuritiesImpurities in equipment stuffs Impurities in substanceChemical reactions, detonationsHeat of formation Heat of decomposition Combustion heat Thermal stableness Resistance to impact Potential energy jeopardiesToxicityExposure bounds: IDLH ; ERPG1-2-3 ; AEGL 1-2-3 ; LC50 and LD50 Exposure effects ( inspiration, consumption, tegument and oculus contact ) Effectss of long-run exposure with little sums Warning bounds ( odor threshold )RadiationRadiation bounds I ± , I? , I? atoms Material toxicity It must be stated that stuff toxicity depends on a series of physical and chemical factors, in the type of contact and on the interaction of substances with beings. The ways in which this penetrates the organic structure are assorted, viz. unwritten ( through the oral cavity, in the tummy ) , cuticular ( toxicity enters the tegument ) or by agencies of inspiration ( through the respiratory system ) . The harmful belongingss of risky substances can be divided into the undermentioned classs ( Ozunu and Anghel, 2007 ) : acute toxicity ( really toxic, toxic, harmful, annoying ) specific belongingss ( allergic, carcinogenic, with consequence on reproduction or familial consequence ) with harmful impact on the environment Whereas the first two classs mentioned supra have direct inauspicious consequence on wellness, the last one acts indirectly on human existences by damaging the environment. The harmful actions start when little sums of substances appear in the organic structure ; should larger sums appear, they can take to one ‘s decease. The most normally used indexs to find substance toxicity are ( Torok et al. , 2011c ) : medium deadly dose- LD50 is the dosage at which half of the experimental population of animate beings ( or worlds, should human deceases be registered ) dice. LD50 index at consumption and at the skin degree is shown in milligram ( mgs ) of substance per kg of animate being organic structure, taking into history a individual disposal. the medium deadly concentration – LC50: concentration for inspiration is measured in mgs of substance per litre of air breathed or in volumetric parts per million -ppm ( exposure clip differs depending on substance toxicity ) the immediate unsafe concentration for life and wellness – IDLH is inspiration with irreversible effects on wellness These bounds of concentration are used as indexs in both the US and the EU statute law ( NIOSH, 2012 ) . The bounds of toxicity for a series of substances are set in the Dangerous Substances Directive 67/548/ EEC. They are grouped harmonizing to some classs presented below. Each type of danger has a hazard phrase ( Rphrase ) consisting of a figure and of the appropriate hazard description ( Ozunu and Anghel, 2007 ; Directive 67/548/ EEC ) . Table 2.6 – LD50 ( unwritten )ClassLD50( mg/kg )SymbolRphraseVery toxic& lt ; 25 T+ R26, R27, R28Toxic25 – 200 Thymine R23, R24, R25Harmful200 – 2000 Xn R20, R21, R25 The current thesis focal points on two major jeopardies, natural 1s, with a instance survey on volcanic ash, and anthropogenetic 1s, with instance surveies on S dioxide ( SO2 ) . Sing volcanic ash, the most serious jeopardies can be associated with its: caustic belongingss on stuffs, i.e. aircraft engines, windscreens, etc. , runing point, the volcanic ash runing inside the turbine due to the high temperatures, and so solidifies in the ice chest parts of the engine s. denseness, the denseness of volcanic ash is comparatively high, dry ash being up to 5 times, wet ash about 20 times denser than snow. This fact represents a major jeopardy to edifices when ash accumulates on the roofs in sufficient measures, taking to prostrations. In the instance of SO2, the major jeopardies are associated with:Quantitative methods used in hazard appraisalQuantitative analysis implies the usage of numerical or quantitative informations and provides quantitative consequences. This attack is more nonsubjective and more precise. It must be mentioned that the quantitative consequences can be extremely affected by the preciseness and cogency of the input parametric quantities. Therefore, the quantitative consequences within the hazard analyses should non be taken into consideration as exact Numberss, but as estimations, with a variable graduated table depending on informations quality ( Torok, 2010 ) .2.4.2.1. ModelingThe representation of world through mold is extremely relevant, since it offers one the possibility to analyze and analyze systems in footings of mathematics and technology. It must be mentioned that a system consists of a set of elements that interact with one another within some bounds. Furthermore, this system has a specific behavior. These bounds are really the 1s that separate the system from the other 1s. These theoretical accounts can be divided into two classs, viz. physical and abstract ( fanciful or mathematical ) theoretical accounts. With respect to the physical theoretical accounts, they describe the system from a physical point of position, utilizing the physical Torahs that apply upon the system under treatment. The mathematical theoretical account of a system describes it in footings of mathematical equations, utilizing simplifying hypotheses. Abstractization works in both ways, i.e. from object to its representation ( theoretical account ) and so back to world. Still, it must be stated that this theoretical account does non picture world all the clip ; it tries to be as closer to it as possible. The more complex a system is, the more complicated the theoretical account becomes. In this context, the purpose of patterning systems and processes utilizing the computing machine is to make a theoretical account that contains a description realistic plenty for the given application. The basic stairss for the accomplishment of a mathematical theoretical account are as follows ( Savii and Savii, 2000 ) : job designation and the pick of variables building of mathematical dealingss among variables utilizing simplifying premises the purchase of information sing the size, importance and interrelatednesss for each variable under treatment the choice of input signals ‘ parametric quantities constitution of province variables proof of premises and dealingss utilizing the right theoretical account harmonizing to the state of affairs.2.4.2.2. SimulationWith the development of information engineering and computation equipment, the scrutiny of theoretical accounts utilizing simulations has become possible. Simulation allows proving those systems ‘ functionality theoretical accounts that have yet to be or are presently in design stage. Simulation is the lone possibility of analyzing the dynamic behavior of such a theoretical account. Discrete simulation, utilizing theoretical accounts of distinct systems, is of great aid for projecting production systems, where issues of optimisation appear ( Savii and Savii, 2000 ) . In the present thesis we focus chiefly on the mathematical mold of the gas pollutants ‘ scattering in the ambiance. Beginning theoretical accounts are used to specify the quantitative emanation scenario of substances by gauging their flow rate, the scattering of substance after release. Dispersion theoretical accounts turn the end products from beginning theoretical accounts into isoconcentration curves specifying concentration countries and cipher the development of concentration in clip. The mass conveyance of molecular-scale fluid occurs through diffusion, with a changeless diffusion velocity throughout its motion. However, unstable scattering is a procedure different from molecular diffusion, since the mass conveyance occurs at assorted scale lengths of the disruptive motion. Disruptive scattering is much more efficient than molecular diffusion. The scattering rate is non changeless ; it depends on the size of the whirl and of that of the cloud of spread pollutant. These whirls can be of different sizes ; on a big graduated table, they determine the motion of the pollutant cloud, whereas on a little graduated table they contribute to its dilution. The energy and size of these whirls determine gas plumes scattering. Their continuance, length and strength are the chief factors that influence this procedure. The mathematical mold of gas pollutants in the ambiance is based on equations of mass, energy and impulse preservation. Such an equation must be established for each pollutant. It represents the fluctuation of atoms ‘ denseness in clip and infinite. From these equations one can acquire a complex system of equations that can be solved by agencies of numerical methods, obtaining the existent behavior of concentration in clip and infinite. A literature reappraisal reveals two chief methods used for picturing the behavior of pollutants released into the ambiance, viz. the Eulerian formalism and the Lagrangian 1. Both methods are used to depict the statistical belongingss of pollutant concentration. The Eulerian formalism starts from ciphering fluid speeds in the ten, Y and omega waies, measured in fixed points in the fluid under treatment. Input information is comparatively easy to obtain from the measuring or mold of discharges, but work outing the mathematical equations system can be really complex, ensuing in inaccurate solutions. Dispersion coefficients can be retrieved utilizing the Pasquill-Gifford graduated table ( Pasquill, 1961 ) . After this, the imission map for a beginning point and meteoric scenario can be developed. The Lagrangian formalism uses the statistical belongingss of some fluid atoms that move passively, freely. As compared to the Eulerian formalism, the mathematical equations system is easier to work out, therefore it is computationally really efficient, and merely the fraction of the sphere really involved in the scattering is simulated. Disruptive procedures are included in the theoretical account in a more natural manner, and there is no important numerical diffusion ( Stohl et al. , 2005 ) . Still, the method ‘s pertinence is limited by the troubles encountered when finding the statistics of fluid atoms. The Lagrangian formalism is applicable upon long-distance scatterings, when the complex topography influences the flow of air-pollutant multitudes. Although the scattering procedure is a typically Lagrangian one, about all information available refering the ambiance are based on Eulerian measurings. Therefore, a relation between the Eulerian belongingss and the Lagrangian 1s is ( widely ) accepted ( Sandu et al. , 2004 ) .

Pompeii The Forgotten City History Essay

The wonder of hidden or disregarded metropoliss is capturing. Pompeii was wholly buried in a affair of seconds, when Mount Vesuvius erupted. The ash and â€Å" miasmic gas † preserved everything in sight ( EyeWitnesstoHistory ) . Even after at least 2000 old ages of being buried you can see people in the center of populating their lives, working on their farm, or merely traveling to the market topographic point. â€Å" Parts of the site remain exposed, and digging and research squads are still trying to uncover this cryptic metropolis ‘s secrets. † ( EyeWitnesstoHistory ) It is sad to state that â€Å" the memory of Pompeii and the environing metropoliss faded into a obscure fable about the lost hoarded wealth of La Citta ( â€Å" the City † ) . † ( EyeWitnesstoHistory ) Pompeii was a really comfortable land, really rich, in money and harvests, the people at that place had a alone manner to â€Å" manner † their houses, utilizing tiles made of lava and besides colored rocks to do mosaics. â€Å" The site of Pompeii is located in western Italy in a part called Campania, with the seashore to the West and the Apennine Mountains to the E. Campania is a fertile field, traversed by two major rivers and blessed with dirt rich in P and potassium hydroxide. † ( EyeWitnesstoHistory ) Pompeii is on a â€Å" a tableland formed by an ancient lava sedimentation sou'-east of the vent Mt. Vesuvius. The metropolis ‘s site is besides a short distance North of the Sarno River and E of the Bay of Naples. This location insured the metropolis ‘s function as a centre of commercialism. Pompeii was a land with fertile evidences, due to the vent and a trade centre. † ( Archive.Pompeii ) â€Å" Pompeii was considered a instead big metropolis at the clip, more cosmopolites than Rome. It held control over city states near it and was a centre for trade in harvests, due to the fertile evidences, vino and olive oil. â€Å" ( Stories form an Volcanic eruption ) Pompeii was a really Rich civilization. â€Å" Pompeii grew from a colony of Oscan talking posterities of the Neolithic dwellers of Campania. Pre-Roman Pompeii, as a portion of Campania, was a receiver of a complex set of cultural influences: Etruscans from the North, Grecian settlers from the South, and Samnites and other Italic peoples all about. † ( Archive.Pompeii ) where Pompeii is located, â€Å" it was a Samnite metropolis for centuries before it passed under Roman regulation at the clip of Lucius Cornelius Sulla ( 1st cent. B.C. ) . â€Å" ( Free Encyclopedia ) â€Å" In 80 BCE Pompeii became integrated into Rome as a settlement ; Pompeii ‘s citizens received Roman citizenship and the metropolis ‘s establishments, architecture, and civilization were Romanized. At its tallness, Pompeii had a booming economic system based on trade and agribusiness, and the metropolis supported between 10,000 and 20,000 dwellers. † ( Archive.Pompeii ) â€Å" As Rome herself became more comfortable, her cit izens began to look up on Pompeii as a luxury resort and shortly luxury state places of the most powerful people in the universe began to embrace the shoreline. â€Å" ( Cornellia ) The worship of Gods and goddesses in this clip are varied, depending on where you were. Isis, an Egyptian goddess, was really extremely adored, as faith spread through Greco- Roman civilization, through the pickings over of states or city states and slaves taking their civilization with them. â€Å" The Temple of Isis in Pompeii was little but flowery. There were temples dedicated to Isis and her brother/husband Osiris throughout the Greco-Roman universe. These temples were the sites of luxuriant day-to-day and one-year rites and were administered by an educated priesthood skilled in music and medical specialty. Isis worship was particularly popular with adult females and with the new elite who gained wealth and prominence as the Roman Empire expanded. â€Å" ( AnceintVine ) And there are many other Gods they worshipped in Pompeii. Pompeii was a polytheistic state. â€Å" First there are the Oscan Gods, eg Flora, the spirit of Agriculture. The Grecian Gods Apollo, Dionysus, Zeus, Athena and Heracles are often depicted in wall pictures. The particular defender of the settlement of Pompeii was Venus. The older Roman Gods, A the Triad of Jupiter, Juno and Minerva had their outstanding topographic point at the Temple of the Capitoline, near the Forum. â€Å" ( Gods & A ; Goddesses ) Pompeii ‘s edifice technique was interesting. In Pompeii, they used lava to craft and make bricks and many other things. â€Å" The streets of Pompeii were filled with blocks of lava melted into rock. The people would utilize â€Å" crushed rock or ash † , whatever they could to construct walls for a house or bakeshop. ( Ancient Times ) â€Å" They would aline the bricks on the wall, in diagonal rows. † Using the colourss of the cement and seting them in assorted forms. ( Ancient Times ) The houses in Pompeii each had a alone flow to them. One thing that attributed to that was the floors, â€Å" made of coloured rocks that formed a image, called a mosaic. † ( Ancient Worlds ) Mosaics were really popular in Pompeii to adorn houses, â€Å" Mosaic ornamentation was widely used in the ornament of the houses. † ( Mosaics ) Another thing they used the lava bricks for is public baths. â€Å" The wonts and manners of life in Roman times have been revealed in great item at Pompeii by the program of the streets and pathwaies, the statue-decorated public edifices, and the simple stores and places of the craftsmans. The houses and Villas have yielded rare and beautiful illustrations of Roman art. Among the most celebrated are the houses of the Vetti, the Villa of the Mysteries, and, in the suburbs of Pompeii, the Villa of the Boscoreale. † ( Free Dictionary ) â€Å" On August 24, 79 a.d. Mount Vesuvius literally blew its top, spiting dozenss of liquefied ash, pumice and sulphuric gas stat mis into the ambiance. † ( EyeWitnesstoHistory ) â€Å" Some people of Pompeii grabbed their animals of load and attempted to fly the country ; others possibly take to wait until the streets were clear of the panicky multitudes ; still others sealed themselves up in suites † ( Archive Pompeii ) Pompeii, covered wholly in ash in a affair of seconds, was preserved for many old ages before being discovered, being a good preserved state. â€Å" Volcanic activity can be something every bit simple as a mild rumble or a whiff of fume, on up to a full blown eruption of magma or clay. It can besides slowly emit or explode rapidly. â€Å" ( Answers ) â€Å" Smoke, clay, fires and firing rocks spewed from the acme of the mountain, directing a rain of ash and stone through the encompassing countryside. The clay seeped down the sides of Vesuvius, get downing nearby farms, groves and Villas. Adding to the devastation were the miasmic bluess that accompanied the falling dust ; the exhausts foremost caused deliriousness in their victims, so suffocated them. † ( Archive Pompeii ) â€Å" Before the eruptions in 79, temblors occurred for some clip, but were disregarded by local dwellers because of their acquaintance with the phenomenon, † it was usual to experience shudders in that country. ( EruptionofVesuvius ) â€Å" The site of Pompeii is located in western Italy in a part called Campania. Campania is a fertile field, traversed by two major rivers and blessed with dirt rich in P and potassium hydroxide. † ( MNSU, Pompeii ) Since the eruption long ago, the civilisations on the fertile land fear the following eruption. â€Å" Campania ‘s first colonists, the first people to settle in this part were likely prehistoric huntsmans, gatherers and fishers. The part besides hosted some of Italy ‘s main olive Grovess, and the mountains nourished 1000s of sheep. † ( MNSU, Pompeii ) Pompeii, a good preserved civilisation, is now toured by many people ; they go to see the fantastic harvests, and the beautiful conserves. â€Å" Based on artefacts discovered by people who lived on the land, scholar humanists hypothesized that the ancient objects they found came from the celebrated La Citta. Excavations did non happen, nevertheless, until the 18th century, when Herculaneum was rediscovered by a provincial delving a well. Pompeii itself was found during an digging that began on March 23, 1748. † ( MNSU, Pompeii ) â€Å" Though Mt. Vesuvius had one time been a really active vent, it had remained hibernating for every bit long as worlds could retrieve. Since no bequest of devastation had been passed down from their ascendants, the people populating near the mountain did n't recognize there was any possible for danger. The first warning mark came on February 5th, A.D. 62. † ( MNSU, Pompeii ) The town besides â€Å" flooded, it was dismaying, though the temblor merely lasted a few minutes, but at that place was one after the other and nobody knew when there was traveling to be a temblor, † people did non cognize how to experience, hopeful or as if they were approximately to decease. On August 24, there were more shudders and the cragged vent erupted, â€Å" the unfortunate people who could non get away in clip to avoid catastrophe were killed by falling edifices, overcome by the miasmic gas, or merely buried by the quickly falling ash. Their organic structures were rapidly covered by the vent ‘s mineral sedimentations, which covered Pompeii in a bed more than 30 pess thick. † ( EyeWitnesstoHistory ) Pompeii was forgotten, due to being covered wholly, in with ash and â€Å" miasmic gas † because of the eruption of Mt. Vesuvius in 79 a.d. The ash preserved the full land. There were many things that lead up to the eruption, including a inundation. Pompeii was a really comfortable land, really rich, in money and harvests, the people at that place had a alone manner to â€Å" manner † their houses, utilizing tiles made of lava and besides colored rocks to do mosaics. Remarks: This study is short by 5 inches. There are several things that need to be addressed: Obviously, as a new pupil, I do n't cognize how much old research and study composing you have done. It appears that you have done a just sum of research for this study, based upon your commendations page and citations in your study. You use a really big figure of citations within the organic structure of your study which should be reduced. Your study needs to be in your ain authorship, sum uping what you have read, with the occasional citation to back up your authorship. If anything, it is the other manner around here. We need to work on this. Although you have good information, it is non good organized. As I had stated in my remarks in your rough bill of exchange, your composing demands to be better organized. Further, there are expressed countries where you neglected to do alterations based upon my remarks ( â€Å" aˆÂ ¦being a good preserved state. † Pg 4 ) Again, evidently you put a batch of work into this, and I do n't desire you to be disheartened. We merely have to work on your authorship manner so that what you have to state us makes the greatest impact. Citations Brion, Marcel, Michael Grant, John Ward-Perkins, and Amanda Claridge. â€Å" Pompeii. † Web. 01 Nov. 2010. & lt ; hypertext transfer protocol: //www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/archaeology/sites/europe/pompeii.html & gt ; . â€Å" The Destruction of Pompeii, 79 AD. † Eyewitness to History – History through the Eyes of Those Who Lived It. Web. 01 Nov. 2010. & lt ; hypertext transfer protocol: //www.eyewitnesstohistory.com/pompeii.htm & gt ; . â€Å" How Often Do Volcanoes Erupt | Ask Kids Answers. † AskKids Answers | AskKids.com. Web. 03 Nov. 2010. & lt ; hypertext transfer protocol: //answers.askkids.com/Nature/how_often_do_volcanoes_erupt & gt ; . Institutions, City ‘s. â€Å" Pompeii Information. † CyArk. Web. 01 Nov. 2010. & lt ; hypertext transfer protocol: //archive.cyark.org/pompeii-info & gt ; O'Neill, Amanda. Ancient times. London: Bramley, 1992. Print â€Å" Pompeii. † Peoples and Topographic points in the Ancient World. Web. 03 Nov. 2010. & lt ; hypertext transfer protocol: //cornellia.fws1.com/pompei.htm & gt ; . â€Å" Pompeii Definition of Pompeii in the Free Online Encyclopedia. † Encyclopedia. Web. 02 Nov. 2010. & lt ; hypertext transfer protocol: //encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/Pompeii & gt ; . â€Å" Pompeii Mosaics. † Pompei Online.net: La Citta ‘ Di Pompei, Gli Scavi Archeologici Ed Il Santuario. Web. 02 Nov. 2010. & lt ; hypertext transfer protocol: //www.pompeionline.net/pompeii/mosaic.htm & gt ; . â€Å" Pompeii: Narratives From an Volcanic eruption. † Welcome to The Field Museum. Web. 03 Nov. 2010. & lt ; hypertext transfer protocol: //www.fieldmuseum.org/pompeii/pompeii.asp & gt ; . â€Å" Temple of Isis. † AncientVine.Com. Web. 02 Nov. 2010. & lt ; hypertext transfer protocol: //www.ancientvine.com/templeofisis.html & gt ; .

Chronic Kidney Disease Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Chronic Kidney Disease - Research Paper Example Chronic Kidney Disease becomes evident after kidney function is extensively impaired. Identification of disease process helps people to understand its cause, modes of treatment and outcomes from treatment or failure to treat. The purpose of this paper is to discuss the disease process, major treatment strategies and their impact to the disease process, and give a Nursing Evidence-Based Practice. It will also present a case study on the disease, and present a Nursing Care Plan for the disease. Chronic Kidney Disease is a problem that occurs when a kidney function is impaired by a disease, causing damage to it. Impairment on the kidney results from some of the organs attached or related to the kidney having been affected due to other infections. Examples of the diseases commonly associated with causing kidney failure include diabetes, high blood pressure, urinary tract obstruction, and recurrent kidney infections, among others. According to Medical News Today (MNT), there are a number of factors that contribute to developing chronic kidney disease, which include; a family history of the disease, age; this disease mostly affects people over 60 years, urinary tract obstruction, kidney diseases at birth, high blood pressure, sickle cell disease and medication, among others (Nordqvist, 2013). Chronic Kidney disease affects the normal functioning of the body. According to National Kidney Foundation (NKF), the kidney is responsible for production of hormones called erythropoietin (EPO), which signals the body to make red blood cells (NKF, 2008). When one has kidney disease, the body may not be able to make EPO and this leads to reduced red blood cells which may lead to anemia. Since a combination or a group of cells of the same kind and which perform similar function makes a tissue, the effect of chronic kidney disease on cells affects formation of tissues. An arrangement of

Recycled Blackberry Phones Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Recycled Blackberry Phones - Assignment Example This project has been taken into concern for the purpose of designing an appropriate project management plan for recycled Blackberry phones. For making this project successful, various strategies that have been adopted by the company in the past will be deeply analyzed upon. As a project manager, future plans of actions will be decided based on the past strategies adopted and executed by the company. Also, the potential shareholders who can provide variable amount of contribution in the recycling process will also be identified. As a project manager, it will be one of the primary duties to create a well diversified SMART project scope which can be effectively utilized in the overall recycling process of Blackberry phones. The project will also include a well diversified plan concerning the sequence of activities in a step-by-step process that will be implemented in a timely and orderly manner. In addition, written documents concerning the exact amount of resources that will be requir ed for the execution of the project will be maintained. Moreover, another plan concerning HR will be developed along with the broad criterion that will be adopted for identification the success or the failure of the project (BlackBerry, 2013; Cleland & Ireland, 2006; Verizon Wireless, 2013). Stakeholders These entities may include the employees of Blackberry, suppliers and distributors of raw materials along with finished goods. In addition, certain other stakeholders like the creditors of the company along with the customers whose role are considered to be important in determining the overall profitability of an organization would be taken into concern. ... Stakeholders The stakeholders in this recycling process will include different entities that will directly or indirectly get affected by the project especially in an affirmative manner. These entities may include the employees of Blackberry, suppliers and distributors of raw materials along with finished goods. In addition, certain other stakeholders like the creditors of the company along with the customers whose role are considered to be important in determining the overall profitability of an organization would be taken into concern. Being the project manager, it is quite needed to ensure that various outsourced agencies which can deliver effectual ideas pertaining to the launch of new applications and programs in Blackberry phones are also needed to be included in the list of the potential stakeholders. Specially mentioning, the above identified stakeholders would play an imperative part in developing the overall project management planning procedure and most importantly enhancin g the decision-making procedure by a considerable level. It is expected that the roles which play by the recognized stakeholders would eventually standardize the ongoing viability of the project by a greater extent (Groman, 2007). Project Management Plan This portion of the project management plan would hold the top most priority in successful completion of the project concerning recycled Blackberry phones (Hossenlopp, 2010). In order to execute the plan in an orderly and appropriate manner, a few of the most fitting actions will be undertaken that would provide greater aid in quick start of the project (Hossenlopp, 2010). These actions have been elaborated hereunder. Collecting and arranging all reports relating to the availability

American History after 1865 Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

American History after 1865 - Coursework Example History indicates that Roosevelt used antitrust threats with the aim of keeping various businesses within bounds (Divine et al., 667). 2.  How did Roosevelt and Wilson differ on regulating big business? Wilson did not trust in the opinions given by Roosevelt about business growth (Divine et al., 675). On his side, Roosevelt managed to lay out various reform programs that favored the growth of big businesses. Some of these reform programs included railroad regulations, and greater control over various corporations. Other reform programs included laws regulating child labor and factory inspections (Divine et al., 668). Another significant issue concerning Roosevelt in the business sector is that he always said that there was a need to enhance various regulations and legislation in a way of prohibiting big business from conducting evil. For example, Roosevelt ordered the army to prepare to seize the mines that were not corresponding with various regulations (Divine et al., 667). Wilso n had various views that differed with those of Roosevelt. He viewed that most of the monopolistic big businesses were enacting various operations that subjected the economy of America. He viewed that most of the operations that big businesses were carrying only oppressed the poor. In favor big businesses, Wilson refused to support the bill that would enhance provision of minimum wages for women workers (Divine et al., 667). He also sidetracked the child labor bill that was proposed by Roosevelt stating that the bill was unconstitutional (Divine et al., 667). 3.  What were the major features of  Wilson’s progressive reform program? One of the major features is that Wilson led the Congress in enacting major pieces of legislation into law. One of these pieces of legislation was the Underwood Tariff Act in 1913 (Divine et al., 675). The significance of the Act was that it lowered the tariff rates to about 15%. Moreover, the act also assisted in removing duties from sugar, wo ol and several other consumer goods (Divine et al., 675). The other piece of legislation that Wilson managed to pass was the Federal Reserve Act. The act was of significant importance to the American government in the sense that it provided a sound and flexible currency. The act also assisted in establishing the first efficient banking system in the country (Divine et al., 675). The other piece of legislation was the Clayton Antitrust Act that he managed to pass in 1914 (Divine et al., 676). The Act was of significance importance because it prohibited unfair trade practices. 4.  How did the Progressive movement manifest itself at the level of city government? The progressives managed to help most of the poor citizens uplift themselves. However, they viewed that there were two groups of poor people. There were those who were worthy of an uplift and there were those who posed as a threat to economic health and growth in the country. The progressives managed to advocate for labor in order the poor can managed to uplift their living conditions. Moreover, the progressives managed to advocate for various women rights. They also advocated a vision for better economic and family life. According to the progressives, this would enable most of the women come out from the labor force and meet their family obligations. The progressives also advocated for

The American Experience from 1865 to 1945 Assignment - 1

The American Experience from 1865 to 1945 - Assignment Example With the deprived agriculture in the South, the industrial North became powerful and dominate both politically and economically. Although the North played a vital role in slave freedom, the problem came in the readjustment of vanquished South and victorious North politically and economically. Reconstruction process which focused in states returned in full status passed in four stages such as the appointment of Andrew Johnson as president, Freedmen Bureau which was active in helping refugees, setting employment contract of freedmen. Thirdly, came Radical or Black Reconstruction whereby Republic coalition governed the states under President Ulysses Grant and in fourth stage Redeemer won political control in most states which made all federal troops withdraw, hence the collapse of Republican state governments. "Congressional Radicals strongly disagreed with Andrew Johnson over securing the place of African-Americans in American society." (J.W. Davidson, W.E. Gienapp, C.L. Heyrman, M.H. Lytle and M. B. Stoff, Nation of Nations, Vol I, Chapter 17, 2001). Moderate Republicans who fought for black rights were overpowered by Presidential vote in alliance with radicals.Reconstruction came to an end in 1868 after Rutherford B. Hayes elected as President who withdrew all federal troops which led to Southern states. Black Americans struggle did not end with the collapse of reconstruction, racism and white resistance took charge which led to the loss of land for some of Black American to white farmers. The vivid example is in 1878 when Benjamin Montgomery the first ex-slave to purchase land lost it to Jefferson Davis. White Southerners designed laws to keep blacks uneducated, propertyless but agricultural laboring class. Racism became rampant whereas in Jim Crow's legal codes segregate blacks from whites. The code forbade blacks from mingling with whites; furthermore, due to racism blacks could not compete and secure most jobs. The problem was aggravated by the lack of education and skills for most black Americans and no rights to the legal system. The black American struggle had undergone several obstacles and with the collapse of reconstruction, the philosophy of protecting black rights, subjected them into more racial segregations. Racial segregation did not recede, and despite the fact that male blacks were granted voting freedom, women were not allowed to do so. Blacks now were not permitted to board third class in the trains which were the main transportation after the war. Despite the good documentation of black struggle history in Nation and Nations book, such events were not mentioned. Supreme Courts passed laws that made blacks to have separate accommodations and not mingle with whites accommodations and public schools for blacks and whites.

Are steroids harmful Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Are steroids harmful - Research Paper Example The experience was daunting for his family as well and I saw them facing this difficult situation rather closely. This personal observation made me curious about steroids and I wanted to know why its use is restricted in professional sports. I began reading steroids and found out that there was a whole era of steroids usage in American baseball (Kendrick n.p). Upon further drilling, I found that even our body produces steroids, however they are in moderate quantities and are relatively required by our body. Sometimes due to health conditions, steroids are recommended by health experts although over dosage has its side effects. At this point, I remembered that my grandmother had rheumatoid arthritis and doctors recommended oral steroids to her. Another interesting article caught my eye about injection of steroids in human food by cattle and vegetation farmers. Local farmers are generously using steroids in order to produce healthy livestock that can be sold to commercial food manufact urers who appear to be aware of the contents of meat and other natural produce that they are buying (Atwell n.p). Since I am highly conscious about my health and avoid taking foods that tend to have artificial flavors, preservatives and food colorings, this fact was quite disturbing. An extensive analysis of the issue by web and library-based research helped me understand the situation and increased my interest in use of steroids by food manufacturers and harmful effects of steroids on human body.... Most of the search was about athletes using steroids and there was relatively less data available on the subject matter which made me realize that may be the general public is unaware of what is in their food and how it is causing major harm to their health. During this search, I questioned myself if use of steroids by food manufacturers is intentional and whether they are aware of the fact that they are inducing obesity and other major health diseases and disorders in American nation, when obesity is one of the major health issues faced by United States. Works Cited Atwell, Janet. â€Å"Can steroids in our food actually make health issues worse?† Yahoo. n.p, 15 Feb. 2007. Web. 18 Jun. 2013. Kendrick, Scott. â€Å"Baseball players accused of using performance-enhancing drugs.† About.com. n.p, n.d. Web. 18 Jun. 2013. Menton, Jessica. â€Å"Top 10 most shocking athletes caught using performance enhancing drugs.† Yahoo Sports. NBC Sports Network, 25 Jul. 2011. Web. 18 Jul. 2013. â€Å"The use of steroid hormones for growth promotion in food-producing animals.† Food and Drugs Authority. US department of Health and Services, 2002. Web. 18 Jul. 2013. Student’s Name Class Essay 2 Burning Question: Are Steroids harmful and whether food manufacturers are trying to kill us? Writing a Profile It is an established practice that many athletes and general consumers use steroids to gain strength and enhance their body features. Being a restricted practice in professional sports the athletes face major setbacks in case of failure to pass drug and enhancement tests. Furthermore, the use of steroids leads to hormonal disorder causing irreversible damage to our internal body structure (Lenehan 129). One shocking aspect of this search was a series of articles about use of

Climate Change Cause and Effect Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

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ECO MOD 2 CA Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

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Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words - 11

Management - Essay Example This paper identifies how increased competitiveness creates opportunities for change and how it impacts the manager’s role. One particular management theorist suggests that contemporary managers, in the face of rising competition, must be results-oriented by identifying specific goals as part of the planning process, measure whether these goals have been achieved, and determine whether or not the end results led to peak effectiveness and efficiency (McLean, 2006: 16). This suggests a manager who must make careful use of internal strategy whereby goals are identified and internal staff members are aligned to meet business needs as part of a planning model. Effective measurement of whether goals have been attained could include a total performance management system which provides employees with reward for maximum contribution toward meeting goals or offering criticism or training in the face of subordinate inability to assist the business. As one example, it would seem that in an environment where a business has a great deal of external competition, the manager must remain focused on achieving maximum prod uctivity by effectively controlling the activities of workers and assessing their progress. Additionally, employees seem to be a considerable resource for making a company more competitive. McHenry (2008) identifies that increased competition also comes in the form of whether or not a business sustains top talent under a talent management model. This model suggests that managers must consistently assess the business structure to look for opportunities to motivate staff members to meet long-term goals. The author identifies that effective talent management, as part of management planning, involves maximising career opportunities for workers and also assessing whether the current recruitment and selection criteria is designed to bring the business top talent over that of competing businesses (McHenry). This talent management model would seem to point

Computer science coursework Merit Essay Essay Example for Free

Computer science coursework Merit Essay Essay Record shops, cinemas, radio stations, video rental stores and even libraries are losing customers to the global trend that is OIS (Online Information Sharing the official MPAA and RIAA term for internet piracy). It once used to be a common sight to see small record shops filled with teens picking their favourite artists new records from the well stacked shelves, paying at the desk, discussing music with others and making new discoveries. It was not uncommon for people to buy or rent VHS tapes or sit at home listening to the radio. Piracy of course was alive here, the market for pirate radio, pirate tapes and pirated videos was enormous, the difference between then and today? Equipment. Nearly every person below 40 has a computer in MEDCs and also has the knowledge to share everything they want from their media collection with others. The most significant difference between the days of pirate radio and the days of worldwide networking is that you no longer need to know how it works to do it; millions of parents mindlessly expose their young kids to P2P networks such as KaZaA and LimeWire which are full of adult content, viruses and include open chat programs which might allow sexual predators access to their children. The first consumer P2P (peer-to-peer) network of note (others such as MC2 , Direct Connect and TinyP2P had existed before but were not widely adopted by the average user) called Napster allowed only for the sharing of music files such as WAVE and . mp3 (leading to MPEG 3 becoming the most popular music format in years to come). This was the most organised piracy or the time among teenagers and young adults through the internet but had problems in terms of the danger that faced the user (being caught) in that the centralized nature of the service meant that the server not only listed the files bring shared by members but all of the files passed through it in an effort to prevent the proliferation of malicious programs. This was extremely bad news for the user as Napster now had the IP address of each and every user, an integral flaw which would come back to bite the company and its user base later on before it could change its process and remove the evidence from its servers. Napster had finally made stealing music easy but was considered flawed by many in the IT community who wanted easier methods of sharing software, video and text files and a safer method of sharing music. Audiogalaxy was the first mainstream centralized P2P client that was capable (although not by design) of sharing any kind of file whatsoever, it gained popularity after the downfall of Napster and was the first time that the MPAA took note of file sharing software as connections became more capable of allowing fast download of high quality video. Audiogalaxy only indexed *. mp3 files, the obvious way round this limitation was found quickly: by (for example) naming a *. exe piece of software from tree. exe to tree exe . mp3. This made AG extremely useful for illegal distribution of both legally and illegally purchased data between users with experience in CGI and Batch (CGI parameters had to be edited to share non mp3 files) but was not as popular as eDonkey2000 (another P2P later to become known as eMule) program which did not have the security limitations of previous P2P clients as it was much faster to decentralize and allow open sharing and indexing. Especially in the case of Napster, facilitating thousands of minor crimes led to a series of lawsuits launched by musicians against the company (Metallica, Dr.Dre, Madonna) but received praise from other artists (Radiohead, Dispatch, Editors) for allowing distribution of singles prior to an albums release. Eventually a larger lawsuit was filed against the company which eventually resulted in bankruptcy after a lawsuit (which inadvertently increased the services user numbers) filed by the RIAA resulting in Napster closing down their network and being blocked from selling the company without liquidating assets under Chapter 7 of the US Bankruptcy Act meaning that the company was forced to close. The name was later sold to Swedish pornography company PMG who run it as a paid for service using similar looking software. AudioGalaxy was also sued and shut down as its out of court settlement rendered the service effectively useless and resulted in the services user base abandoning it en masse as a result AG too, opened a pay service to distribute music. In efforts to decentralize and avoid federal prosecution, modern networks designed for file sharing are de-centralized, often encrypted and use proxies to disguise IP addresses, for these reasons modern networks make it much less likely for a user to be discovered and served with a court order or other legal reprimand. A de-centralized system does not have a server which holds the files but instead a server that indexes a list of all available files rather than storing them. Most modern p2p systems also use (as mentioned previously) a process of encryption and proxy servers to make them untraceable. The servers often do not ask uploaders and downloaders of content to register accounts as they have previously done, this prevents user name linking: a process that the CIA reportedly used wherein they would search a napster username through a series of websites trying to gain personal data on a pirate in order to find and prosecute them. Another security feature of modern P2P protocols is the streaming swarm structure which works on a rarest first basis, splitting files into multiple parts and downloading these parts (to be reconstructed into a usable file on the leech (downloading) computer) rather than an actual file. As none of these individual parts is usable as the intended finished product on its own Swedish law allows the redistribution under its own piracy laws for this reason, the most prolific pirating groups are based in the country. One such group is the Swedish pirate political party called Piratbyran, the Piratbyran, (whose motto Pirate and Proud has itself caused problems for the group) this organised group has demanded that (along with the Pirates website piratgruppen. org) pirates be treated fairly by the law of the world as they believe they have the right to appraise things and decide if they are worth purchasing before doing so. For this reason, Piratbyran have set up Kopimi, a copywright alternative (said copyme) which declares others right to use your work as they see fit (this being a more extreme version of many other previously concocted alternatives like creative commons which permit a user the right to use works for non commercial reasons of their choice) for anything at all. The group also used Bram Cohens bit torrent protocol and created the worlds largest tracker a website that indexes all of the files available through the protocol which is called ThePirateBay. com (a. k. a. TPB), this site is distributed in over 20 languages and is currently the most popular tracker for the most advanced, secure and efficient protocol that is commercially available at this time. They are however intending to create their own protocol to remove their reliance in Bram Cohen (the creator) who has recently cut distribution deals with Hollywood film studios and is believed to be considering taking the protocol commercial. Governments across the world are certainly taking note, shown in hundreds of adverts which have only proven ineffective thus far. In the USA and the UK the governments have been running multiple adverts against piracy on legally purchased DVD videos and Blu ray / High Definition DVDs which are fairly useless: the advert assumes You wouldnt steal and lists a series of items before telling you piracy is a crime and showing w young girl getting up from her computer where she is downloading a film and walking out of the door. Most people tend to be offended at the fact that, after legally paying for something, they are forced to watch an advert telling them not to steal. This string of adverts alone has caused a series of parody adverts which take off the script of the original You might steal a book and even inspired a film called Steal this movie. Of course there are also positive sides to the increase in stealing and sharing among internet users, the little guy for example is heard far more than the major executive, companies are embracing the freedom culture and popular bands are pre releasing their albums for free to gain fan support. Sharing is even curing cancer! A largely adopted project ([emailprotected]) launched by a US university is folding protein strings over a massive decentralized network in an effort to discover a cancer cure or prevention in lieu of the supercomputer they would normally require. Those passing records about in the early days probably never saw that coming when they connected their first networks! Back in the early 1980s, piracy (albeit not online) was rife amongst office workers and the computer competent, these early criminals would exchange software through floppy disk and share records between each other. As the 90s started and the first networks were being created within offices, the stealing only increased as files could be copied between computer terminals via cable rather than by hand. Now, with the age of the internet: it is estimated that over 300 million of the worlds population routinely steal information and data over the internet with millions more borrowing DVDs and books from each other, whether or not these people are stealing more or less because of the internet is unquestionable, with our ability to access millions and millions of people we are able to share and steal far more than we previously could have done and this only provides incentive to give and take more than we would normally have done in a spirit of world community that is evoked by groups that exist in this sphere such as piratgruppen and the piratbyran.

NVQ and Competence - Essay Essay Example for Free

NVQ and Competence Essay Essay In this supporting paper to the presentation, the purpose, the nature and the advantages and disadvantages of NVQ will be stated and analysed; finishing with a conclusion as to whether to follow a NVQ or not. The definition of an NVQ is â€Å"A statement of competence clearly relevant to work and intended to facilitate entry into, or progression in, employment and further learning, issued to an individual by a recognized awarding body†. A national vocational qualification (NVQ) is a collection of vocational qualifications (previously unstructured), which have been integrated into a single assessment standard. This has been done in order to have a nationally recognised level of academic achievement which enables employees to have a clearer level of each job applicant’s respective competency. Competency can be defined as:- ‘An underlying characteristic of a person which results in effective and/or superior performance in a job’ (Boyatis 1982, p21) Due to the heavy promotion by the Learning Skills Councils, (LSC’s) and the Department for Education and Employment; the majority of vocational qualifications are either part of the NVQ scheme, and in the rare occasion that it isn’t, most commonly when the qualification is of different nature of those offered by the NVQ syllabus, the qualification will have its equivalence identified to its respective, specific, level of the NVQ system in order for those nationwide (familiar with the NVQs) can have more clarity as to where such candidates stand on the level of competency. NVQs have been developed to suit all occupational areas, with each occupational area there are eight levels with the NVQ system to complete to attain ‘full competency’. This is structured in such a way that level one is the most basic and level eight, the most advanced level of NVQ. The ideal situation of training for competence is done by the manifestation of the development of candidates’ abilities to perform the specific tasks which coincide directly with the nature of the job in its respective department, in terms of performance results (grading), with specific indicators. NVQs have originally been developed with the purpose to serve as a reaction to the ‘confetti-scattering’ style of training which is sometimes carried out by some establishments e.g. a company which sends their staff on off-the-job training with just the objective to learn one particular skill. This training style results in the candidates becoming one-dimensional, due to  having a limited knowledge of skills. NVQs have, in fact been developed in order to give these candidates a more rounded knowledge, thus enabling them to be more versatile, efficient in their respective job positions. The design of NVQ has been structured in such a way that in each of the eight levels, there are mandatory and optional roles (or modules); these are comprised of a collection of several units, those of which are to be completed to be able to progress onto the succeeding level. The table beneath can be used in aid to understand the structural layout of each level in NVQ. There are several advantageous principles adopted by the NVQ system. These include:- 1.The NVQ qualifications are open access in the sense that no prior professional attainment or experience, nor qualifications are required, each candidate will be categorised level (1-8) after a means of analysis (be it a test or a review of current skills/ experience currently obtained). 2.The focus-based learning format of the NVQs. Progression from one level to next is based on when the criteria to advance has been met, this can be as quick or long as the individual will take to learn, opposed to other assessment standards where the timescale restricts the learner to learn in its set time. An example of this is that it is impossible to complete a Master’s Degree quicker than in a year. 3.Flexibility is a key aspect of NVQs, as they are not generally attendance based – in conjunction with the focus based learning aspect of the qualification where the learner can take as long/short as they want. This also enables candidates to continue with their respective business demands of their external employment, in conjunction with following NVQs. 4.School Integration is available to the NVQs (GNVQs), this enables candidates to have early access to the hands on approach, which runs alongside other assessment standards (e.g. An alternative run in the same centres as A –levels etc.), thus showing equivalence in value and progression routes, thus giving more viable options to the candidates). 5.Portfolio based work proves to prospective employees that a track record is available showing day to day skills being learnt, thus proving the levels of understanding and competence of each candidate. 6.Prior Accreditation being put into consideration as to which level they will be categorised, enables the candidate to use their  qualifications/experience regardless of where from, as long as relevant (i.e. A-levels, training at work etc., enabling an individual to start in a more advance d level). NVQs also have a few disadvantageous aspects when following their assessment standards, these include. 1.Labour intensive nature of assessment there is a lot of practical work undergone in the NVQs 2.More focus in gaining evidence than actual learning, lack of cognitive learning amongst candidates. As most of the proof (to validate competency level) is done via the production of a portfolio and the presenting of a track-record , this can easily turn into a ‘paper-chase’ rather than the actual focus on the learning processes of the qualification. The also, ‘going through the motion’ nature of the NVQ can also enable the candidate to not be able to reason, simply performing tasks without having true understanding. 3.Quality of assessment can, due to the large numbers of assessors, have a large variance as the marking of each individual can differ. Especially with the different interpretations of some of the jargon developed by the NVQs assessment grading schem es 4.Partial Competence due to selection of optional modules/ reduced definitions and details, as each candidate can choose their modules in the option roles category and each module having different aspects and natures, the candidate may be subject to effectively not gaining an entire knowledge in their respective occupational fields. An example of this would be (referring to table above) where each module has a code which labels the nature of the unit. Take ‘C5’, With C symbolising say, ‘Managing Self and Personal Skills’, one opting out of such a unit, could prove to give them less than the complete set of skills an NVQ could offer, thus lowering competence. To conclude, NVQs are a system devised by the government to help those in various situations, both academically and professionally in order to make them more competent in their respective field in a nationally recognised manner to potential employers. There are a range of advantages and disadvantages to the candidates as well as the employers, such as not having to follow a timescale in learning and also in not receiving a full knowledge due to optional module selection, but as to whether one should be followed  or not, according to the studies that have been carried, out should go hand in hand in the individuals situation.. For instance, one that is currently employed may not be able to dedicate a lot of time to their qualification course, would suit an NVQ whereas, an individual wishing to say, be a medical doctor, a career where having extensive knowledge of their occupational area is vital, would not suit following an NVQ course, where modules are optional and perhaps having re duced knowledge. Bibliography 1.Armstrong,M(2012)Armstrong’s Handbook Of Human Resource Management Practice, 11th edition, Philadelphia: Kogan Page Limited. 2.Hall,L. Taylor,S. Torrington, D. (2008) â€Å"Human Resource Management†, 7th Edition. Pp. 399-407 3.Blosi,W.(2007)An Introduction To Human Resource Management, London: McGraw-Hill Education 4.Marchington,M. Wilkinson, A. (2005) Human Resource Management At Work People and development, London: Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development 5.Lundy,O. Cowling, AG, (1996)Strategic Human Resource Management, London: Routledge

Building Vocabulary With English Language Learners English Language Essay

Building Vocabulary With English Language Learners English Language Essay Abstract For my research I chose to focus on the vocabulary aspect of language acquisition. As I contemplated my current students and what I feel I most need to be able to do for them is to help them build vocabulary. The everyday language known as Basic Interpersonal Communicative Skills (BICS) (according to Jim Cummins) develops sooner and more easily than Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency (CALP), the academic language. This tells me that my students will pick up the structures of language and patterns of conversing incidentally (and at three years of age they are very receptive to it), but even most of my native English speakers have limited vocabularies due to their age and experiences. So it is my job to bolster their knowledge of the world and to give them the words to discuss it. Different speakers in online videos suggested strategies for building language and vocabulary. However, I wanted to focus more intensely on this as I prepare for the beginning of a new school year with all-new students. This paper addresses strategies that have proven successful in building vocabulary in English language learners, from read-alouds focusing on new vocabulary to activating prior knowledge and selecting leveled text. Vocabulary instruction can be explicit, or after a certain level is reached, it occurs incidentally as students read. There are many strategies to assist EESL Vocabulary is without a doubt a fundamental building block if a student is to be successful in the area of literacy. Yet this area is a major struggle for students who are new to the country or who have yet to master English. Teachers can teach strategies for decoding and can teach children to read, but without a strong vocabulary the spoken words will have little meaning to the student. Although many of these students possess a fluent oral vocabulary, many English as a second language (ESLs) struggle with achieving the reading level necessary to function at the appropriate grade level, (Wallace, 2007). Before students are able to read and comprehend text, they must have a large repertoire of words that they can read and understand. The minimum number of words needed for extensive reading to occur is believed to be somewhere around 3,000 to 5,000 words (Wallace, 2007). Contrastively, students learning to read in their primary language already know 5,000 to 7,000 words (Wallace, 2007) . This very obviously leaves a large gap between the words known by ESL students and EO students, making reading a much more difficult task for the former group. ESL students need both breadth and depth of words, as vocabulary knowledge is a strong predictor of reading comprehension. It also impacts listening comprehension (Wallace, 2007). In one study the Text Talk approach was used in a kindergarten classroom. Prior to the intervention there was a significant difference in the vocabulary knowledge of the English-only (EO) students as opposed to the English language learners. Using the Text Talk approach along with English as a Second Language (ESL) techniques such as visual illustrations and acting the words out, the English language learners were able to close the gap. Additional research has shown that specific vocabulary strategies have yielded similar gains for EO and ESL students (Manyak, 2009). Not only were significant gains made in vocabulary, smaller gains were made by both groups in the area of reading comprehension. Some might downplay the need for specific instruction in vocabulary, but studies show that students benefit from specific vocabulary instruction. For example, teachers should point out and help students become aware of cognates. Cognates are vocabulary items in two different languages that are similar both orthographically and semantically'(Wallace, 2007). To educators, it might seem quite obvious that words that look similar in another language could in fact have the same meaning, but studies have shown that emergent bilingual students noticed less than half the cognates in material they were presented (Manyak, 2009). Languages such as Spanish share many cognates with English, allowing for a large amount of transfer for students who know to look for them. Students would benefit from explicit instruction of even basic vocabulary using materials from Increasing Fluency with High Frequency Word Phrases. This includes using child-friendly definitions and giving examples of word usage. T hese Tier I words usually do not need to be taught to EO students, but ESL students may not know the words. Wallace suggests using pictures or other visual aids to support ESL students with these basic words (Wallace, 2007). Pictures are particularly suited to using with new nouns. Teachers can show pictures of both examples and non-examples (Swanson, 2007). Tran (2006) points out that Coady (1997) believed a group of 2,000 to 3,000 high-frequency words should be studied until they become sight words. This starts with the 220 Dolch words that cover very basic words. In addition to basic words, instruction should also cover some higher-level words, particularly those that are subject-matter specific and related to the content being covered (Cummins CALP). After Dolch words are master there is a General Service List of English Words (GSL) that can be used. It contains 2,000 high-frequency words which cover 87% of general text (Tran, 2006). GSL also gives information about the words relative frequency and the meaning of each entry. Since students must learn many more words than can be explicitly taught, it is also important that teachers give students strategies for inferring the meaning of words. Strategies for inferring include noticing cognates, explicit instruction in using context clues, and morphological analysis (Wallace, 2007). As with anything taught to ESL students, basic strategies can enhance presentation, such as slowing speech, using realia, simplifying speech, and using tools such as graphic organizers (Manyak, 2009). As with any classroom, it is important that the environment be a safe place for students to express ideas and speech (Swanson, 2007). Students should feel comfortable sharing without the fear of ridicule or criticism, which will keep the affective filter for students low. There are also vocabulary-specific programs such as Vocabulary Visits that Manyak suggests (Manyak, 2009). This approach is particularly effective for teaching younger students vocabulary. Making sure to review and reinforce new words is something that most teachers know to do, but might be need to be reminded to implement, especially when it comes to even more basic words that ESL students will need assistance in learning. Read-alouds should be followed with teacher-directed activities in language development. Due to limited time, student-directed activities are also importance (Wallace, 2007). Simplified reading materials are particularly beneficial to ESL students because they allow for repetition of high frequency words while limiting difficult vocabulary words (Tran, 2006). Because there are usually many different levels of text, it is easier to differentiate based on students abilities, with the best fit being a text that is slightly difficult; the text should be comprehensible to the student but just difficult enough that the student will have to put forth effort and can pick up some new vocabulary from it. The number of new words should be limited so students will not be overwhelmed by the sheer volume of them and can focus on making meaning of the new vocabulary presented. It is important that students see a new word repeatedly and have opportunities to read it, write it, and say it to increase the likelihood of the student remembering the word and being able to add it to their repertoire (Swanson, 2007). Research also supports the value of extensive reading, defined as both a large quantity of reading materials and also a focus on meaning as opposed to language. This can benefit students in the areas of developing sight vocabulary, general vocabulary and the knowledge of the target language (Tran, 2006). One technique for increasing word knowledge is the use of a word map (Swanson, 2007). A word map provides a definition of the new word, a synonym, an antonym, and either a picture or a sentence using the word. This allows the student to think about the new word in a variety of ways and to see how it can be used in a different context. As for the quantity of materials, Krashen considered students reading on their own superior to direct instruction, and other researchers found it to benefit spelling, grammar, and writing in addition to vocabulary. However, other researchers warn against expecting students to learn vocabulary incidentally until they have a base of about 3000-5000 words in their vocabulary. For that reason, Tran suggests that to best develop vocabulary students be given graded text or materials specifically written for ESL students. Shorter passages may be read in one sitting, or divided into shorter segments to be read over a number of sessions. As students reading comprehension improves, they can be given increasingly longer passages to read (Tran, 2006). Some research has shown intentional teaching of vocabulary strategies is more effective with older students, and is also more beneficial when it is interactive. Some ways to explicitly teach vocabulary involve word notebooks and dictionaries. Students can keep word notebooks or word cards. A word card consists of a new word along with notes on how to use that particular word. Notebooks can also be used for students to keep track of new words, like in a personal dictionary. Bilingualized dictionaries can also be very useful, providing a L1 translation, an L2 definition, and an example sentence in the L2. Students tend to remember words better when they are explained in their L1 as opposed to the L2 (Tran, 2006). However, teachers should steer clear of having students copy definitions out of the dictionary (Swanson, 2007). The teacher should also inform students that the dictionary is a tool for learning a words meaning, but not necessarily a valuable tool for students to regurgitate i n writing. When vocabulary activities are teacher-centered, teachers can teach words pertaining to the passage being read and give strategies for developing vocabulary and reading comprehension. When the activity is more learner-centered, the student should identify vocabulary needed the reading in question and try to learn the new words to gain understanding of the text (Tran, 2006). Related literacy activities such as listening to a song or a recording of the text, or watching a movie clip with subtitles and also aid in new vocabulary retention. Students can also be asked to summarize what they read, either orally or in writing. Teachers should also provide students with opportunities to read and write new words. Younger students would benefit from choral reading to give them a good model of the proper pronunciation. Older students may want to read the text multiple times. Teachers may want to explicitly point out differences between writing in the L1 and L2 (Swanson, 2007). These might be particularly beneficial to students when the writing system is close but not identical. For example, in Spanish the /h/ sound is written with a g or a j, but not with an h as in English. Keeping this in mind, when presenting text for ESL students to read, teachers should select text where there is the same letter-sound correlation as much as possible so it will be easier for reading. For example, in Spanish, most of the consonants have the same sounds, so students whose L1 is Spanish can easily decode many words in English. Teachers themselves need a strong understanding of language and how it works so they can make it acc essible to their students. Having a working linguistic knowledge of English will help teachers in pinpointing areas where ESL students might need specific instruction. New words can also be kept track of on a word wall, along with a definition of the word. Prior to reading a new text, teacher can also provide context by giving students a preview of the reading. The teacher can select material that will capture the students interest, and then ask a question to prompt discussion. Finally, the teacher can give an overview before the class begins the new reading material (Swanson, 2007). Students should also be taught to monitor their reading and keep track of what it is they do not know (Swanson, 2007). Swanson surmises that even young students know what it is they do not know, and teachers can assist beginning English speakers by asking them what words they would like to know. Teachers should keep in mind that idioms do not translate well across languages, and idiomatic speech must be explained to students or they will likely take the phrases literally and they will appear nonsensical. Drawing on students background knowledge as it relates to the literacy presented also helps students retain new vocabulary (Hickman, 2004). The vocabulary should be taught in the context of the literature and subject matter in which it will be used instead of as a separate vocabulary list. New vocabulary should be related to the content area being studied, and students benefit from semantic mapping and word family associations. Teachers might find themselves steering away from vocabulary that is more abstract and harder to visualize, but students need to be taught these words as well. Students understanding of vocabulary grows from in-depth discussion of new terms guided by the teacher. Text should be culturally relevant and easy for students to relate to so that new vocabulary can be incorporated in students minds (Hickman, 2004). Read-alouds can also be extremely constructive, especially if teachers make a conscious effort to highlight vocabulary and adhere to certain guidelines for instruction. Materials for read-alouds should be one to two grade-levels above what students can currently read. Reading books that are related thematically allow repeat exposure to new vocabulary and provide a basis from which students can generalize about words and gain a deeper understanding of the content being studied (Hickman, 2004). Based on studies of first-grade students, Hickman suggests a book be broken into three to five segments of 200-250 words each being read on successive days, with the entire selection being read the day after the final passage is completed. A smaller passage allows for the introduction of fewer new vocabulary words and allows the teacher time to delve into the meaning of the new words and to explore how they are used in the text. On the final day the teacher should review four or five challenging new vocabulary words to help solidify them in students brains. Word choice is vital, with research suggesting that Tier 2 words that can be used across content areas are good choices. These are the types of words that can often be seen in academic text and on assessments. Suggested questions to consider when selecting vocabulary are as follows: Will learning this word enable students to better discuss their own experiences because the word can be used with words the student already knows? Will this word lend itself to a deeper understanding of the content? (Hickman, 2004). The teacher can select three to four words from the reading selection and then write definitions from them in child-friendly terms. Before reads the text, the text, the teacher previews the material and gives the students the vocabulary words that are the focus, one at a time. The students repeat the word and the teacher gives a definition that is in line with the students knowledge of English and uses simple and familiar words. Then the teacher presents the word in its written form displayed on an index cards, and then moves on to the next new word. The teacher then instructs the students to listen for the key vocabulary words before reading the text straight through. After the read-aloud, students are encouraged to retell the text using the key vocabulary words. Students who are listening to verify the accuracy of information other students give with a simple thumbs-up / thumbs-down. First the teacher asks for an account of the text, and then asks an open-ended question, and then a n inferential one. After closing the discussion, the teacher rereads the text, asking students to listen for the featured vocabulary words and showing a thumbs-up when they hear one of them. If the students dont catch the new vocabulary word when the teacher reads it, the teacher should stop, point out that the key vocabulary was just read, and reread the text so students have a chance to notice it. When the students find a new words they are asked to repeat the word and explain its meaning. Then students can make their own sentences using the new vocabulary words. From there the teacher can extend what students know about those words and how they are used in the read-aloud. ESL students need an opportunity to discuss the story and related events in their own life. After finishing with the vocabulary instruction, the text should be summarized and the key take-away points relating to the content should be reiterated (Hickman, 2004). On the final day the entire text is reread and then students do follow- up activities such as acting out new vocabulary words or matching these words with their synonyms. For vocabulary instruction, there are many ways classroom teachers can assist ESL students. Teachers can use strategies such as speaking slower, using simpler words, and using pictures as aids. Focusing on cognates and deeper word meanings are also helpful. Everyday practices like read-alouds are also highly beneficial for ESL students. Research supports these and many other ways of helping our English language learners improve in the area of vocabulary.